Dependency Pattern of Local people’s on Hakaluki Haor for Their Livelihood: A Case study from Chatla Beel & Jolla Beel, Moulovibazar
CHAPTER: 1 (ONE)
1.1 Introduction:
Hakaluki Haor is the country's largest inland freshwater wetland ecosystem, located at Fenchuganj and Golapganj upazilas of Sylhet district and Baralekha, Juri and Kulaura upazilas under Moulvibazar district (CNRS,2002). There are 11 unions (Bhatera, Baramchal, Bhakshimail, Jaifarnagar, Barni, Talimpur, Sujanagar, Paschim Juri, Gilachhara, Uttar Bade Pasha and Sharifganj) under these five upazilas of the two districts. The Haor is located in the north-east of Bangladesh between 24.35nN and 24.45N latitude and 92.00'E and 92.08E longitude with an area of 18,383 ha (45,406 acres) (CNRS, 2002). It is a shallow water basin nested between the Patharia and Madhab hills in the East and Bhatera hill to the West. There are more than 238 small, medium and large interconnecting beels, some of which are perennial and others seasonal. During the dry season, approximately 4,4000 ha are is covered by the beel, but with the onset of the rains in the summer, the entire area floods to about four and half times of this size (18,383 ha) and remains under water for up to five months. During this period, all the beels are united as one large lake, or haor, making Hakaluki Haor the largest freshwater wetland in Bangladesh. The haor is mainly fed by the Juri/ Kantinala, Sonai/ Bordol, Damai. Fanai, and Kuiachara Rivers, out of which the Bordol/ Sonai, and Juuri/ Kantinala Rivers are originated in India. Land ownership is not equally distributed among the population of the ECA. Most of it is owned by a small number of rich farming families. The central area of the ECA that are prone to flooding belongs to the Government.
Hakaluki Haor once was with plenty of wildlife and aquatic resources and covered with swamp forest, which in the recent time has become a fast-degraded landscape and facing increased pressure and threats (Choudhury, 2005). Such rapid degradation of the wetland ecology is causing devastating consequences on the community people living in, around and downstream of the Hakaluki Haor, who, for generations, were dependent for their livelihoods upon vital functions, services and benefits provided by this wetland. About 200,000 people live around the haor (Choudhury, 2005).All of them, more or less, are dependent on the resources of the haor for their livelihoods. As the haor floods annually, settlements are clustered along its slightly raised fringes. On ground of such threats and rapid degradation of the resources and in recognition of the urgent need to protect the unique ecology and biodiversity of the haor, Government of Bangladesh has declared Hakaluki Haor as an "Ecologically Critical Area" (ECA) under the provision of the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA), in 1999. (CNRS, 2002).
The Hakaluki Haor supports a wide variety of agricultural and horticultural crops and fast growing introduced timber species (Khan, 2005).A significant number of medicinal plants is also found in the Haor. Fisheries and agriculture are the two major livelihoods for local people living in and around the ECA (CNRS Final draft, 2004).Other livelihood supports provided by the Haor include cattle grazing, NTFP collection, duck rearing, and sand mining. Besides, the Haor serves generally as a transport pathway particularly while it is flooded, provides water for drinking and washing, provides micro-climate regulation, and holds significant potential for generating income as a tourist attraction. Primary stakeholders of the resources of the Haor are farmers, fishers and collectors of resources from the Haor like aquatic vegetation, cow fodder, aquatic animals and medicinal plants.
Hakaluki Haor ecosystem supports at least 73 species of wetland vegetation, which is nearly half of the national total of 158 species of vegetation (Choudhury and Faisal, 2005). The flora of Hakaluki Haor is a combination of ecologically important remnant swamp forest and reed lands although many of these species including vegetations are now largely absent.
Hakaluki Haor is a critical habitat and breeding ground for fish and other aquatic species and considered as one of the four major "mother fisheries" in Bangladesh. More than 100 fish species are available in the Haor, one third of which are listed as engender (Choudhury and Faisal, 2005). Some of the major economically important fishes are Rui (Labeo rohita), Gonia (L. gonius), Kalibush (L calbasu), Katla (Katla catla), Mrigal (Cirhinus mrigala), Boal (Wallago atiu), Pangus (Pangasius pangasitts), Air (Aorichthys aor), Guizza air (Aovichihys seenghala), Bagha air (Bagarins bagarius), Rita (Rita rita), Magur (Clarias batrachus), Singhi (heleropneules fossils), Kani pabda (Ompok binocidaius), Madhu pabda (Ompok pabda), Tengra (Mystus lengra and AI. villains), Koi (Anabus testudineus), etc. Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and small prawns’ are also available in the small rivers and canals. (CWBMP, 2004).
The Haor is also the home for globally significant waterfowl especially large number of' migratory duck species that pass the winter season in the EGA. There was an estimation of wintering population of ducks in 1960s at between 40,000 to 60,000 (CWBMP, 2004). The numbers have now declined considerably. Hakaluki Haor is rich in wildlife resources also. There are a number of varieties of mammals and reptiles including snakes, frogs, turtles, toads, tortoises, Irrawady Squirrel, and the Gangetic Dolphin that inhabits in the Kushiara River.
The Hakaluki Haor wetland has been subject to severe degradation and loss including significant declining of its resources that have been in turn affected the livelihoods of those dependent on the wetlands and their resources. The causes responsible for such degradation of wetland habitat and their resources are identified as sedimentation, development interventions such as conversion of wetland and forest land into agricultural land, drainage and river diversion for irrigation, degradation of aquatic habitat due to agro-chemical pollution from agricultural lands and tea states and over exploitation of the wetland resources by the rapidly growing human population in absence of appropriate policy and management measures.
The forest resources (swamp and reed land plants) in the Haor lack proper conservation and management. Due to absence of such management measures, over and illegal exploitation by the local people and leaseholders for fire wood, placing for making brush shelter in the beels, cattle fodder, herbal medicine, food, housing and mat making materials. The swamp/reed land plants are gradually declining. The swamp and reed land plants also provide habitat and food for wildlife, fishes birds and serves as barriers against the erosive effects of wave action, etc.
The beels/canals/rivers (jalmahals) within the Haor owned by the Government are supposed to lease out to the actual fishers as per present policy for exploitation of fisheries resources but the local influential somehow manage the lease of the jalmahals. So, the actual fishers (mostly poor) have lost their access rights to fishing in the Haor, where they work as laborers and on share basis or by paying license fees to the leaseholders. However, the poor fishers and the local people have free access floodplain (privately owned land) during rainy season, when the Haor becomes a large sheet of water. Fishing in the flowing rivers is open and free for all. Increasing fishing pressure due to rapid growth of human population and destructive fishing by harmful gears, dewatering, etc. in the Haor are responsible for depletion of fisheries resources.
1.2 Study objectives:
This study aims to provide information about the dependency pattern on Hakaluki haor in terms of its economic, ecological and social benefits for local communities. It has the following objectives:
a) Illustrating the interactions between the people, resources and economic activities.
b) To know about the life style of Haor adjacent local peoples & their economic activities on Haor areas.
c) To assess inter-linkages between economic & ecological function of the Haor system that is directly linked with local livelihoods.
1.3 Rationale of the study:
Hakaluki Haor (HH) is one of the important habitats of swamp forest among few wetlands in Bangladesh. The area of the HH is approximately 18000 hector. One third of this wetland has habitat of swamp forest, which has been converted, into scrub forest, grazing land and agricultural land over the years. However, there are still some sporadic patches of degraded swamp forests of about 1000 hector around HH in the centre of the haor. Swamp forest provides numerous benefits to the local people. A number of people around the Haor depend on it for fuel wood, fodder and thatching materials. Swamp forest is the sources of many life supporting medicinal plants such as Shotomuli (Asparagus raccmosus), Onontomul (Tylophora asthmatica), etc.
Ecologically, swamp forest is highly resilient. Despite the severe disturbance and stress, this forest has been observed to have highly .self-regenerating potential.
The existence of degraded scrub swamp forest with numerous seedlings, coppices from the remaining stump of trees clearly indicate the potentiality for natural restoration. Hijol (Barringtonia acutangulata), Barun (Crataeva nurvala), and Koroch (Pongamia pinnuta) are the important swamp trees, which arc highly potential to regenerate from seedlings and coppices. In the Redland, Nol (Phragmites karka) is also capable of regeneration from vegetative reproduction.
Although, major swamp species and aquatic plants of HH have unique regeneration strategies, the immense anthropogenic disturbance and stress obstruct the trajectory of natural restoration. Conversion of swamp forest habitual into agricultural land is the major and the worse anthropogenic disturbance, which results, completes depletion of swamp habitat and destruction of biological legacy for further regeneration. Grazing and trampling by the cattle is also another severe threat to the newly regenerated of swamp and reed and plant species. Indiscriminate fuel wood collection by the dwellers at sapling stage of swamp trees species leaves no room for the further development into mature stage.
In this context, an urgent protection measure is essential to reduce the direct threats on and to allow the plants to be prolific by using their own regeneration strategies in different swamp habitats. In addition, creating awareness and sensation in the local communities about the significance of protection by visualizing the natural restoration of swamp forest should be a concern of utmost importance.
CHAPTER: 2 (TWO)
Literature Review:
2.1 Definition of wetland
For the purpose of Ramsar Convention, as adopted in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide docs not exceed six meters (Khan et al., 1994).
Bangladesh possesses enormous wetland areas out of which the principal ones are rivers and streams, freshwater lakes and marshes including haors, baors and beels, water storage reservoirs, fishponds, flooded cultivated fields and estuarine systems with extensive mangrove swamps. There are about 700 rivers in Bangladesh, the estimated total length of which is 24,140km (Akonda, 1989).
The major wetlands are shown in Map 2.1:
Map 2.1: Major Wetlands of Bangladesh.
Globally, wetlands are amongst the most fertile and productive ecosystems and important breeding grounds for fisheries. They serve as a filtering system to clean up polluted water, protect coastlines from erosion and act as barriers against storm surges besides providing people with a wide range of staple food plants, lush grazing lands and fuel. It is the dynamic interaction of the terrestrial and aquatic systems with people that makes wetlands so environmentally valuable. Wetlands also provide habitat for a rich variety of resident and migratory waterfowl. Their scenic beauty can support the development of tourism. Their resources play a significant role in other economic activities like extraction of reeds and harvesting of food plants and those of medicinal importance.
2.2 Classification of wetlands
Wetlands of Bangladesh can be classified on the basis of their hydrological and Ecological functions and land type concept into the following categories (Dugan,
1990).
Saltwater wetlands:
a) Marine:
i. Permanent shallow waters at low tide, e.g., bay
ii. Coral reefs, e.g., St. Martin's reef
b) Estuarine:
i. Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats with limited vegetation, e.g., newly
accreted land.
ii. Intertidal marshes
iii. Intertidal forested wetlands including mangroves, e.g., Sundarbans.
c) Lagoonal:
i. Brackish to saline lagoons with narrow connections with the sea.
Freshwater wetlands:
Riverine wetlands
i. Permanent rivers and streams including some char land.
ii. Temporary seasonal rivers and streams
Lacustrine wetlands:
There are over a thousand lakes of varying sizes in Bangladesh, the greatest concentrations being in the main delta region covering the districts of Rajshahi, Pabna. Kushlia, Jessore, Faridpur, Camilla and Noakhali. The haor basin comprising a vast alluvial plain with a mosaic of wetland habitats including haors and beels is bounded by the hill ranges of Meghalaya on the north, hills of Tripura and Mizorain on the south, and the high lands of Monipur on the east. The numerous rivers rising in these hills cause extensive flooding during the monsoon. During the dry season, most of the water drains out leaving a series of isolated beds, which are often overgrown with aquatic vegetation. As the water level recedes, the exposed alluvial soils are extensively cultivated for rice.
Different types of inland water bodies and their areas (in sq km):
Open inland waters
a) Rivers
7,497
b) Estuarine area
6,110
c) Beels and haors
1,142
d) Innundable floodplains
54,866
e) Kaptai lake
668
Closed waters
a) Ponds
1,469
b) Baors
55
c) Brackish water
1,080.
Farms
Total
72,899
Source: (Akonda 1989 and Khan 1994.)
2.1.Table: Different types of inland water bodies and their areas (in sq km)
Definition of different terms of wetland (FAP, 1993):
Haors which arc bowl- shaped depressions between the natural levees of a river subject to monsoon flooding every year, are mostly found in the eastern region of greater Mymensingh and Sylhet districts, known collectively as Haor basin covering an area of approximately 24,500 sq.km.
Baors or oxbow lakes, formed by dead arms of rivers, are situated in the moribund delta of the Ganges in Kushtia, Jhenaidah, Jessore and Faridpur.
Beels arc saucer-like depressions which generally retain water throughout the year, and are mostly overgrown with marsh vegetation during the dry season, e.g. Chalan beel in the northwestern region.
True hikes: There arc only three true lakes in Bangladesh, viz. Rainkhyongkine and Bogakine in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Ashuhila beel at the northern end of the Barind Tract.
Palustrine wetlands:
a) Permanent freshwater marshes and swamps with emergent vegetation
b) Permanent peal-forming freshwater swamps dominated by Typha
c) Freshwater swamp forest, e.g., Hijol (Barringtonia acutangulala) forests of lowland,
Manmade wetlands:
a) Aquaculture ponds (brackish and freshwater)
b) Irrigated lands and irrigation channels
c) Salt pans
d) Hydro-dams, e.g., Kaptai Lake
Kaptai reservoir
The only large artificial wetland is Kaptai reservoir formed as a consequence of a hydro-electric dam completed in 1963, and which has flooded over 76,600 ha of pristine forested valleys and cultivated land in the Chittagong Hill Tract (Akonda, 1989). Other artificial water bodies include many thousands of small tanks and fish ponds scattered throughout the country. These include also large areas of shrimp aquaculture in the coastal districts
2.3 Importance of wetlands:
Wetlands have great ecological, economic, commercial and socio-economic importance and values. They contain very rich components of biodiversity like flora and fauna of important local, national and regional significance. The principal functions of wetlands are (IWRB, 1992 and Dugan, 1990):
Ground water recharge, ground water discharge, storage of flood water, shoreline stabilization and reduction of erosion, sediment trapping, nutrient retention/removal, support for food chains, fisheries production, habitat for wildlife, recreation, natural heritage values, biomass production, water transport, bio-diversity preservation and micro-climate stabilization.
Wetlands in Bangladesh arc a very rich depository of vegetations, aquatic plants, reeds and algae. The floral composition is relatively uniform throughout the haors, beels and baors but the dominance varies seasonally.
Wetlands are nationally important for a variety of reasons:
۞ Biodiversity:
The large and varied wetland environment is rich in species diversity. Of more than 5000 species of (lowering plants and 1500 of vertebrates, of which approximately 750 are birds and over 500 are coastal, estuarine and freshwater fish, up to 300 plant species and some 400 vertebrate's species are judged to be dependent on wetlands for all or part of their life span (Khan et, al., 1994). Wetlands also provide habitat for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, a significant number of endangered species of international interest, and a large number of commercially important ones.
۞ Fisheries:
The inland capture fishery is the most important sub sector in terms of total catch, source of employment and supply of animal protein. It is based on the countries vast freshwater resources and some 270 species of fin and shell fish which inhabit them. Essential habitats for the inland fisheries comprise open and closed water habitats, including rivers, canals, floodplains, haors, heels, baors and small roadside depressions. Although discrete in the dry season, these water bodies become interconnected during the monsoon and provide critical habitats for completion of the life cycles of a large number offish species.
۞ Agricultural diversity:
There are many local varieties of rice, conservatively estimated to number in the thousands, as well as other existing or potential commercially important plants, which provide a valuable gene pool to ensure continued development of improved varieties for the future.
۞ Tourism:
It remains an infant if non-existent economic activity, but there is substantial foundation for the view that the countries natural resources could support development of richer tourism.
۞ Other economic activities:
Wetlands also support a significant range of other economic activities other than fishing, such as extraction of reed, harvesting of edible aquatic vegetation and their products, medicinal herbs, shells, etc.
2.4 History and heritage of wetlands:
Wetlands constitute a part of man's natural heritage. We derive aesthetic enjoyment, inspiration and a feeling of relaxation from their scenic beauty. For thousands of years wetlands have played a significant part in the development of human society. Archaeological findings confirm that many of the earliest human settlements such as those of the Mesolithic period were dependent on wetlands for food, water clothing and shelter.
The civilization in Asia and the Far East developed in floodplain environment. The major river systems in the world have supported the development of rich and sophisticated civilization, and many diverse societies have evolved effective systems for deriving benefits from the rich natural productivity of the wetlands ecosystems. Asia still possesses some of our planet's riches natural ecosystem. The rich biodiversity, which those ecosystems support, is of particular international significance. One noteworthy example of great importance to human society is the new form of deepwater rice that has evolved in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basins, containing genes which enable these paddy plants to rise above floodwaters providing food even under severe flooded conditions.
While the importance of wetlands for biodiversity has long provided the driving force for wetland conservation, the people have realized the economic benefits and governments only recently and major investments have been made in this direction. In the early days of the Ramsar Convention, the principal focus was placed upon listing of the sites for the protection of biodiversity, but now there has been an increasing attention given to other provisions such as sustainable utilization and international collaboration for the wise management of wetlands. To conserve objects of outstanding universal value in maintaining natural ecosystems, World Heritage Convention selects the sites from proposals made by the countries in whose territories the sites are situated. The inclusion of sites on the World Heritage list can serve as a powerful argument in securing international support for their conservation and many wetlands have already benefited from their prestige.
2.5 Declaration of ecologically critical areas (ECAs)
Ecologically Critical Area ecologically defined areas or ecosystems affected adversely by the changes brought through human activities. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA). 1995 has provision for Ecologically Critical Area (EGA) declarations by the Director General of the Department of Environment (DOE) in certain cases where ecosystem is considered to be threatened to reach a critical stole. If the government is satisfied that due to degradation of environment, the ecosystem of any area has reached or is threatened to reach a critical state, the government may by notification in the official gazette declare such areas as Ecologically Critical Areas. The government shall specify, through the notification provided in sub-clause (1) or by separate notification, which of the operations or processes cannot be initiated or continued in the Ecologically Critical Area (Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995) (Ramsar. org., 1999).
2.6 Ecologically critical areas of Bangladesh:
In April 1999, the Director General of the Department of Environment (DOE) officially declared nearly 40,000 ha, within seven separate wetland areas, as ECA's. These sites are Hakaluki Haor, Sonadia Island, ST Martin’s island, and Teknaf Peninsula (Cox's BAZAR Sea Beach) but not their buffer zones. TANGUAR HAOR, Marjat baor (oxbow lake) at Jhenaidah and outside of Sundarbans Reserved Forest at 10 km extent all of which were deemed to meet the 'urgency criterion' required by BECA, i.e., they were "threatened to reach a critical state" (Ramsar. org., 1999).
Although a large number of ecosystems in Bangladesh could accurately be described as "threatened", it would be impossible for the government to declare and manage all of them as ECAs. In order to identify priority sites, a series of biodiversity 'importance criteria' have been taken into account in addition to the above 'urgency criterion'.
2.7 Wetlands legislation and strategies in Bangladesh:
The existing laws in Bangladesh are not specific to the needs and problems of wetlands conservations and management. There are some sectoral laws having bearing on wetlands forests, wildlife, fisheries, management of Jalmahals and other development activities in the wetlands areas.
Bangladesh's environmental policy, including its strategy towards wetland and related issues, has made broad strides during the 1990s (Nishat et ah, 1993). The major elements are outlined below:
Biodiversity Convention (1991): Bangladesh has signed and ratified the Biodiversity Convention.
UNCED Country Report (1991): The report emphasis's the "enormous importance"' of the country's wetland areas, "...both as havens of biodiversity and as major sources of the nations livelihood" (MOEF, 1991).
National Conservation Strategy (NCS, 1991): The NCS provides specific strategies for sustainable development in I8 sectors of the economy.
Environment Policy, 1992: The Environment Policy adopted in 1992 gives due importance to wetlands and related issues. The Policy includes, inter alia, the following aspects: - Rivers, canals, ponds, lakes, haors, beels, baors, and all other water bodied and resources should be kept free from pollution;
- Wetlands should be conserved for the protection of migratory birds.
- Activities which diminish the wetlands/ natural habitats of fish should beprevented and rehabilitative measures encouraged.
- Existing projects on water resources development, flood control and irrigation should be examined to determine their adverse impact on fisheries, and
- Environmental impact assessment (CIA) should be conducted before
undertaking new project for water resources development and management.
National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP, 1995)
The ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) prepared NEMAP based on a comprehensive participator}' planning process ranging from grassroots up to national levels. Local communities, government agencies, non- governmental organizations, professional groups, academics, parliamentarians, lawyers and journalist’s alt provided inputs.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
In December 1999, the Minister of Water Resources Management announced the Governments intention to develop an ICZM policy. Among other objectives, (lie ICZM policy will attempt to rationale and more effectively co-ordinate a number of environment and development initiatives taking place within the coastal zone.
The Forest Act 1927 (amended in 1989)
The Act prohibits certain acts like clearing, setting fire, trespassing, cattle pasturing, felling of trees, stone quarrying, cultivating land, hunting, shooting, fishing, poisoning water etc in the reserved forests. According to the provisions of this Act any public or private way or watercourse may be stopped for the public in the interest of preservation of the forest.
Rules to Regulate Hunting, Shooting and Fishing within the Controlled and Vested Forests- 1959
These rules prohibit poisoning river or other water and killing fish by explosives within the controlled and vested forests. Rules also prohibit or restrict hinting, shooting and fishing of certain species for a specific period of the year. The rules also prohibit hunting, shooting, strafing and fishing in A category forests to prevent extinction of any species or to form game sanctuaries.
Bangladesh Wild life (Preservation) (Amendment) Act 1974:
This law provides for the preservation, conservation and management or" wildlife in Bangladesh. The acts prohibits hunting, killing and capturing of certain categories of animals designated as protected animals and also prohibits hunting, killing and capturing of certain categories of animals designated as game animals without obtaining a permit from the relevant authority.
East Bengal Protection and Conservation offish Act, 1950 as amended by the Protection and Conservation of Fish (Amendment) Ordinance, 1982; and the Rules made under this Act:
It provides for protection and conservation of fish in the inland waters Bangladesh. The Act prohibits various destructive methods of fishing.
The East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act, 1950:
This law has transferred ownership of wetlands /Jalmahals from the Zamindars to
the government.
The Haor Development Board Ordinance, 1997
Among other thing this law requires the Board:
a) To prepare projects and schemes for development of the haors and other similar low lying and depressed areas;
b) To approve projects and schemes involving not more than twenty-five lakh. c) Taka each and to submit other projects and schemes costing more than twenty-five lakh taka to the government for approval;
d) To execute approved projects and schemes; and
e) To supervise execution of projects and schemes.
Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act 1995 and Environment Conservation Rules 1997:
The Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act of 1995 was promulgated for environmental conservation, improvement of environmental quality, control and mitigation of environmental pollution in the country.
The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Rules 1997 is another step taken by the Government lo supports the conservation of bio-diversity.
2.8 International collaboration:
Recognizing the environmental, social and economic consequences of wetland loss, Bangladesh has initiated some national action programmed to address the conservation.
2.8.1 Ramsar convention
Ramsar Convention, named after the town of Ramsar, Iran, where it was adopted in 1971 has specific objectives of conserving wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat. In October 1992 there were 70 contracting parties to the convention. In joining it the countries are required to designate suitable wetlands within their territories for inclusion in a special list. Bangladesh designated 59,500 ha of Sundarbans when it become signatory to the convention in May 1992 .The principal focus of the convention is upon listing of the sites (UNCED, 1992).
This has now been extended to formulation and implementation of plans to promote the wise the use of wetlands .At the third meeting of the contracting parties in Regina, Canada, in definition of the wise use of wetlands was adopted as follows:
"The wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilization for the benefit of human kind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of ecosystem"
Natural properties of the ecosystem are defined as:
'Those physical biological or chemical components such as soil water plants, animas and nutrients, and the interactions between them"
Successive conference have encourage cooperation between contracting parties on the management of shared wetlands and their resources providing opportunities for exchange of information and transfer of technology and urged for development assistance policies to be pursued in support of wetlands conservation.
2.8.2 World heritage convention
The World Heritage Convention serves to conserve objects of' "outstanding universal value" that are part of the natural and cultural heritage of the world. Its value in maintaining natural ecosystems is therefore very specific and limited. In addition, in contrast to the Ramsar Convention, sites cannot be designated unilaterally by the contraction parties but are selected by the World Heritage Committee from proposals made by the parties in whose territories the sites are situated (Biber-Klemm, 1991). However, the inclusion of sited on the World Heritage list can serve, as a powerful argument in securing international support for their conservation and management needs, and many wetlands have already benefited from these prestige.
2.8.3 Bonn convention
Recommendation 32 of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, asked governments to undertake actions to protect by international legislation migratory species that cross international boundaries. Work towards such legislation was undertaken by the Federal Republic of Germany in close consultation with the IUCN Environmental Law Centre, and was concluded in 1979 with the signing of the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals or the "Bonn Convention" (Boere, 1991).
The Convention is a basic nature conservation convention aiming to conserve wild animals, including birds, regardless of the origin and nature of the threats they are facing.
2.8.4 Biological diversity convention
The Biological Convention signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, in June 1992 by over 150 governments provides a framework to enable the government to decide how best their biodiversity can be conserved. Government agreed that it is vital to address the caused of biodiversity loss and to maintain the ecosystems and habitats through in situ conservation (UNCED, 1992).
In the Convention, governments affirm that they have sovereign rights over their own biological resources, but are responsible for conserving biodiversity and for using their biological resources in a sustainable manner.
Further, the Convention recognizes the traditional dependence of many indigenous and local communities on biological resources, and the desirability of enabling local communities to share equitably in the benefits arising from the use of indigenous knowledge.
Finally, the Convention recognizes that more money is needed to conserve biodiversity, and that increased investment will bring considerable environmental, economic and social benefits at local, national and global levels.
2.9 Ramsar criterion on Hakaluki Haor
Hakaluki Haor is a highly significant site for a wide variety of waterfowl, particularly Anatidae. Its overall significance is perhaps best expressed with refers to the various criteria for inclusion as a Ramsar site. In a comprehensive 1995 survey, Hakaluki Haor was deemed to fulfill the following five Ramsar criteria (Halis, 1996).
"It is a particularly good representative example of a wetland which plays a substantial hydrological, biological or ecological role in the natural functioning of major river basin"(Ramsar Criterion 1 .c).
"It supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered species of plant or animals, or an appreciable number of individuals of any one or mere of these species."(Ramsar Criterion 2.a).
"It is of specials value for maintaining the genetic and ecological diversity of a region because of the peculiarities of its flora and fauna.”(Ramsar Criterion 2, b).
"It regularly supports 20,000 waterfowl."(Ramsar Criterion 3.a).
"It regularly supports substantial number of individuals from particular group of waterfowl, indicative of wetland values, productivity or diversity (Great Cormorant, Tufted Duck)" (Ramsar Criterion 3.b).
More recent observers have pointed to a sixth criterion met by the site, i.e., "It regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies (UNDP, 1994).
2.10 Management and regulations of wetlands (Nishat et al., 1993):
2.10. 1. Historical aspect
From colonial times lands and other resource in the country were mostly under private ownership perpetually granted by the British under the Permanent Settlement Regulations, 1793, these estates, or Mahals as they were called, comprised almost every kind of resources available on a specific fiscal-geographic areas. Often, the Jalmahals, especially the closed fisheries, were made part of such estate .The legal history of the marshy tracts, haors or baors, which can be termed as wetlands, hence formed an almost integral part of the land tenure history. The land and all resource on or attached to land were subjects of settlement to private parties. As a result when East Bengal becomes the eastern province of Pakistan in 1947, 91 percent of the land was under permanent settlement and only 5.5 percent under "public property" status or khas mahal. The wetlands which formed part of the zamindars estate were within the "sub-tenancy making power of the landlords" which could be either an absolute occupancy right or usufructuary right.
2.10.2 Abolition of Zamindari
The Zamindari system was abolished and all rent receiving interests were acquired by the under the State Acquisition and Tenancy (SAT) act of 1950. The lawful settlers under the Zamindari were made owners or tenants under the state The terms tenant is used incase of non agricultural land governed by the Non-Agricultural a Tenancy Act, 1947).
The Land Management Manual of 1991 Provides elaborate guideline for managing 10,108 public Jalmahals vested with the Ministry of Land .The manual enumerates the following management rules:
a) The fisheries measuring up to 20 acres are entrusted with the Thana
administration.
b) The fisheries managed by the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock would be available and accessible to the scientists and researchers of the Department of Fisheries for investigation and environment information collection.
c) The fisheries not being more than three acres in size would be preserved by the Union Parishad so that people can exercise their customary right of using the waters for domestic and other purpose. These fisheries would not be leased to any one.
d) All other fisheries covering an area larger than 20 acres would be granted to ijaradars through open auction.
2.10.3. Institutional and policy conflicts
It is clear wetlands under the management of various sectoral public institutions are being treated as something other than wetlands. Each sector maintains its compartmentalized priorities irrespective of adverse impact on other sectors. The mono institutional approach has reduced the potentials of wetlands. The question is what are the policies relevant to wetlands in Bangladesh? Since there is nothing called wetlands in the law of the land but being regulated under various legal statuses, it is essential to study those sectoral policies or guidelines on fisheries, agriculture water resource development, etc.
It is essential to identify the policies and legislative or regulatory issues that are responsible for destruction or act as hindrances to wetlands conservation or sustainable use. Unless the issues are identified, it would be difficult to purpose practicable recommendations.
2.11 Occupation and social identity of the HHs:
As illustrated in Table 1, the primary occupation of households living around Hakaluki haor is agriculture, closely followed by fishing. Just under half of the populations are engaged in other activities, many of them wetland-based, including manual laborers, boatmen, small traders and remittances from abroad.
Table2.2: Distribution of population by upazila and main occupation of head of the household in Hakaluki haor:
Upazila
Main Occupation
Barleka
Fenchugnj
Golapgnj
Juri
Kulara
Total
Agriculture
27.8%
38.0%
26.0%
37.9%
51.3%
37.9%
Fishing
27.5%
30.8%
32.7%
14.1%
19.2%
23.3%
Labor
22.4%
6.2%
6.1%
13.4%
6.2%
11.4%
Boatman
0.2%
0.1%
1.2%
0.4%
0.1%
0.3%
Small trading
6.5%
7.0%
7.1%
11.3%
5.0%
7.3%
Remittance
8.7%
7.2%
17.5%
8.7%
11.1%
10.3%
Others
6.9%
10.7%
9.4%
14.1%
7.1%
9.4%
Total
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
99.90%
100.00%
99.90%
Source: CNRS, 2004.
2.12 Problems of biodiversity of Hakaluki Haor:
2.12.1 Causes and Reasons of problem
The Sylhet region is highly rich in wetlands among other regions of Bangladesh. The wetland of Hakaluki Haor, which is one of the biggest wetlands in South Asia, is situated in Sylhet, and the Ramsar site Tanguar Haor, but these haor are now in threatened condition due to destructive activities, mismanagement & lack of awareness, local people killing migratory birds & unsustainable use of wetland (Jewel, 2005).
Hakaluki Haor in the northeast of Bangladesh is one of the countries largest and most important inland freshwater wetlands. However, it is fast becoming a degraded ecosystem unable to effectively perform the vital functions and services it once used to. Fish slocks are dropping, water quality is deteriorating, birds are no longer as abundant as they used to be, mammals such as foxes and fishing cats are now a rarity, endemic plant species (many of which are crucial for the livelihoods of local communities both in terms of their properties to nourish and heal) arc becoming hard to find, and swamp forests and reed swamps have all but disappeared. In addition, the Haor is becoming less deep as a result of deforestation, sedimentation, drainage, and river diversion for irrigation. This degradation and ultimate loss of biodiversity is caused by a number of factors, many of which are economic in nature such as the conversion of swamp forest for agriculture, unsustainable fishing practices, fuel wood collection, bird hunting, overgrazing, and over-harvesting of wetland resources.
Problems and causes of problems of biodiversity of Hakaluki Haor arc discus on the below:
2.12.1.1 Problems of Biodiversity: Fishery
- Decline in fish production
-Some species are already extinct
-Some species are going to be extinct.
-Decline of fish feed
-Decline in shelter/lack of trees/ bush
-Intermediaries are reaping the benefit. Genuine fishermen are reduced to fish Laborers
-Over harvest of haor water for HYV agriculture
Causes/Reasons of the problems:
- Over-exploitation of fisheries resources
-Use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides in the upland tea gardens
-Waste from the Fenchugonj fertilizers factory dumped into the water system
-Waste from the paper mill in Assam dumped into the water system
-Use of current nets/ cloth nets for catching fish/fingerlings
-Fishery communities are not organized.
2.12.1.2 Problems of Biodiversity: Birds
- Decline in migratory and local birds
-Loss of habitat/food/ shelter
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems:
-Loss of food including different varieties of small fishes, snails, mussels, oysters, etc.
-Hunting of birds
-Use of firearms
-Use of light
-More human settlement in previous adjacent areas
2.12.1.3 Problems of Biodiversity: Animal Diversity
-Domestic animals such as cows, cattle, buffaloes, goats arc depleting grazing grounds
- More and more lands arc being brought under HYV agriculture
-Decline in bathans
-Vaccination and treatment services are inadequate. As the haor area is remote, service accessibility is a major problem.
-Wild animals are being depleted with destruction Of forest.
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems
-Reduced availability of fodder
2.12.1.4 Problems of Biodiversity: Plant Diversity
-Decline of trees /depletion of forest resources
-Population explosion
-Hijol / Barun trees arc gone, Loss offish shelter/ breeding ground
-Long standing water
-Loss of herbal trees
-Aquatic plants are gone
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems:
-Use of timber in furniture making, burning bricks
-Conversion of forest land into agriculture
-Reduced dependence of consumers/ patients on herbal medicines / -kabirajee medicine
2.12.1.5 Problems of Biodiversity: Agriculture
- Local varieties of rice are disappearing
- Land productivity/fertility is reduced
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems
-Attraction for HYV agriculture
-Use of chemicals and pesticides in HYV agriculture
-Loss of biomass/organic fertilizer with the depletion of trees
-Siltation
-Reduce availability of water
-Water logging
2.12.1.6 Problem: Water resource
-Pollution of water
-Reduced aquatic productivity
-Depletion of aquatic plants
-Depletion of aquatic animals/ shamuk /jinuk /snails
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems:
- Sand coming across the border resulted in siltation
- Waste from factories dumped in to the river/water system
2.12.2 Threatened phenomena of Hakaluki Haor:
These include the following specific threats:
- Loss of Redland and swamp forest areas due to conversion for agriculture;
- Reduction in surface area and depth of mother fisheries and other aquatic habitats (beels). Due to sedimentation, drainage and river diversion for irrigation;
- Degradation of reed land and grassland habitats due to overgrazing within the haor, and;
- Minor risk of degradation of aquatic habitat due to agro-chemical pollution from tea estates.
The following threats related to over-harvesting of resources have been identified: o -Loss of reproductive capacity of fishery due to inappropriate fishing practices;
-Loss of genetic diversity due to increasingly intensive tillage of high-yield varieties (HYV) of rice;
-Unsustainable levels of fuel wood collection;
-Over-harvesting of amphibians, including turtles and frogs; and « Reduced bird populations due to hunting.
2.12.3 Causes of biodiversity loss at the Hakaluki Haor:
The following have been identified as key causes of biodiversity loss at the Hakaluki Haor site:
1. No legally instituted protection measures for ecologically critical areas
2. No effective management authority at field-level
3 Limited participation by local communities in resource use decision-making
4. Inadequate information on status and functioning of critical ecosystems
5. No integrated management planning for ecologically critical areas
6. Limited opportunities for alternative sustainable livelihoods
7. Lack of alternative sources of fuel wood and fodder
8. Limited public awareness of environmental issues
9. Lack of technical knowledge, capacities
10. Poor enforcement of fisheries and wildlife protection acts.
CHAPTER: 3 (THREE)
Background of the Study Area:
3.1 Location and significance:
Hakaluki haor is a complex ecosystem, containing more than 238 interconnecting bee/s /Jalmahals (CWBMP 2005). The most important beels are Chatla, Pinlarkona, Dulla, Sakua, Barajalla, Pioula, Balijhuri, Lamba, Tekonia, Haorkhal, Tural, Baghalkuri and Chinaura. The total area of the haor is approximately 18,000 ha, including the area which is completely inundated during monsoon. Of this total area, beels (permanent wetlands) cover an area of 4,635 ha. This 18,000 ha area represents area demarcated as EGA declared by the Government of Bangladesh for Hakaluki haor.
Hakaluki haor lies between latitude 24° 35' N to 24° 45' N and longitude 92° 00' E to 92° 08' E. It is bounded by the Kushiara River as well as a part of the Sonai-Bardal River to the north, by the Fenchuganj-Kulaura Railway to the west as well as to the south, and by the Kulaura-Beanibazar Road to the east. Hakaluki haor falls under the two administrative districts (Moulobibazar and Sylhet) and five upazilas (Barlekha, Kulaura, Fenchuganj, Golapganj and Juri).
Some 190,000 people live in the area surrounding Hakaluki haor. The two main sources of livelihood for these people are fisheries and agriculture. Depending on how water levels are controlled, tensions arise between the areas available for fish versus the area befitting for agricultural production. An important task facing wetland managers is thus to find equitable ways to achieve the balance between these sometimes competing forms of production.
Map 3.1: Map of Hakaluki Haor
3.2 Agricultural production
There are three major rice crops in Bangladesh: Aus, Aman and Boro. Of them, Boro is the main form of production in the haor area, while Aus and transplanted Aman are almost universally found on highland and medium highland floodplain ridge soils. Aus are widely transplanted in this wet region; elsewhere, sprouted seeds are sown on wet puddle soils. Most such land remains fallow in the rainy- season. With irrigation, HYV Boro is followed by rain fed transplanted Aman .
On lower land, mixed Aus and Aman or deepwater Aman are the traditional practices on basin margins, with local Boro paddy or grass land (used for dry season cattle grazing) in basin sites.
With LLP irrigation, the area under Boro paddy mainly early maturing local varieties has greatly expanded in the past 30 years, thus considerably reducing the area formerly under grassland and reed swamp. Rabi crops such as vegetable, spices, sweet potato, potato, pulses and mustard are mainly grown on loamy-bank soils.
3.3 Natural resources Fisheries
Haors and Floodplains in Bangladesh are important sources of fisheries resources for the country. Kalibaus, Boat, Rui, Ghagot, Pabda and Chapila are the main fish species of the Haor. From the Kushiyara there are frequent upstream movements of fish towards the beels and tributaries of Hakaluki.
Beels in Hakaluki haor are important for fisheries. They provide the winter shelter for the mother fisheries, and in early monsoon these mother fisheries produce millions of fries for the entire downstream fishing communities. Consequently, protection of these fisheries not only benefits local people, but also all the people in the lower floodplains. Floodplains are also an important source of fisheries resources within the EGA.
At the same time it important to note that each of these beels also provide a natural habitat for different species of fishes. However, many of the beels have lost their capacity to provide shelter as mother fisheries, and hence are subjected to severe degradation due to- a) Sand deposits from upstream rivers and canals,
b) Using complete dewatering technique for fishing activities and
c) Absence of aquatic plants to provide feed and shelter for parent fish. Chatla beel has come under threat of sedimentation from the Juri River. To counteract this threat, an embankment was constructed to deflect river sediments away from the beel.
Most of these beels are leased out by the Government of Bangladesh for fishing activities for at least a period of three years, with provision for renewals. Each beel has a surrounding land area known as kanda where reeds and swamp forests used to exist in the past. Over time, human pressure, encroachment and also land allocations by the government to the landless has reduced the reed and the swamp forest area which provided shelter and feed for fish during the monsoon.
There are claims that under the current practice of land leasing, Hakaluki haor are in danger of losing nearly 32 fish species out of 107 because of over fishing by the lessee. This is a serious threat to fish stocks in the haor.
3.4 Waterfowl
Hakaluki haor is a very important resting place for migratory waterfowls flying in from the north. The most interesting species is the Barheaded Goose, which is now very rare in fresh water wetlands. Other important species include Adjutant Stork, Bear's Pochard, Falcated Teal, Broadbill Sandpiper, Spotted Redshank, Nordmann's Greenshank, Temmiinck's Stint, Steppe Eagle and Osprey. In a survey conducted under FAR 6 in 1994, 64,000 waterfowl were counted in Haorkhal and 15,000 waterfowl were counted in Chatla beel. Illegal poaching has been a threat to the waterfowl population.
3.5 Vegetation:
Ecological characteristics, particularly vegetation patterns, differ sharply between the permanent and seasonal water bodies in Hakaluki haor. Within the permanent water bodies, vegetation is less dense in the monsoon than in winter, since the vegetation becomes submerged and does not thrive without light. However, the aquatic vegetation that exists begins germinating with the onslaught of the monsoon floods. Aquatic vegetation occurs mainly in the shallower parts of the Haor. Other than the shorelines (kanda), most of the open water areas are weed-free.
3.6 Livestock
Hakaluki haor is known as good grazing land. People from villages around the haor and also from distant areas send their herds for grazing in winter. During this time, herders make permanent shelters near the beels and graze their animals for a period of 4-5 months. During monsoon, many keep their herds in-house or send them to nearby hills for grazing.(CWBMP Final draft, 2004)
3.7 Forests
Hakaluki haor contained a very dense swamp forest in the past, but deforestation and the lack of conservation practices have virtually destroyed this unique forest in the last two decades. Two small patches of swamp forest remain in the Hakaluki haor. One is in Chatla beel another is near the village of Kalikrishnapur. The plants which are common in this type of forest are also found in homestead groves. With the exception of these two swamp forest patches, the vegetation surrounding Hakaluki haor is unique since it includes both swamp forest as well as mixed evergreen rain forest.(CNRS, 2004)
Thatching material is the most useful natural wetland product of the area. The people in the vicinity use this material in various ways: for example as roofing, wall or wall panel material for their houses and for making mats. The utilization of wetland products is now less intensive, because in recent years the vegetation has decreased considerably.
Another important use of the resources from this wetland is for fuel wood. Due to the scarcity of fuel wood around homesteads, the people are becoming increasingly dependent on this source of fuel. Swamp forest trees, except for hijol, are the most popular fuel wood in these areas. However, all woody shrubs including grasses are also used for this purpose. The naturally regenerating saplings in the swamp forests are being harvested at a non-sustainable rate because of the scarcity of fuel.
Wetlands products are also used as bio-fertilizer or green manure. All the small herbs and grasses grown in the Haor are used as green manure. Farmers living around the Haor use these materials instead of chemical fertilizer. The soft aquatic plants are gathered immediately after the monsoon and placed in piles in the fields, to allow them to decompose.
There are many aquatic plants which are grown in the Haor area, and are used as food, medicinal plants, duck feed, or for fuel. These common property resources are of considerable importance to the poor.
3.8 Wetland goods, services and economic values
The haor system provides a wide range of economic and non-economic benefits to the local people as well as to the people of Bangladesh and the world at large. These include benefits in terms of fish production, rice production, cattle and buffalo rearing, duck rearing, collection of reeds and grasses, and collection of aquatic and other plants. The haor system also protects the lower floodplains from flash floods occurring in the months of April-May, recharges the water tables, maintains the supply of fish in other lower riparian water bodies, provides habitat for migratory and local waterfowl, and generates important carbon sequestration services. At the same time, the unique haor system is a natural beauty both during the monsoon months and the dry season. In monsoon, its unique physical characteristics make it a huge natural bowl of water and in the dry season it is natural grassland with a horizon nearly 35 km wide, with pockets of beels serving as the resting place for migratory birds. Such a unique natural system, if appropriately marketed, could be a major attraction for tourists. However, as of today, there is little evidence of this.
The property rights regime of the haor is complex. Most of the agricultural lands in the haor basin are private land. While the majority of the water bodies are owned by the government and are generally leased out for fishing activities, smaller water bodies are sometimes owned by local villages or by a few families. The banks of the water bodies, which were once tracts of swamp forests, are public land.
The cycle of economic activities in the haor region also varies significantly with changes in the seasons. During the monsoon months, most of the land is under water and so fishing is the major economic activity. However, during this time leaseholders have no control over fish, because they are spread over a large area and people are able to catch them freely.
During the dry season, a large number of activities take place.. Agricultural land under private ownership is often put under Boro rice production. The banks of the wetland provide grazing grounds, and herds of cattle and buffaloes are brought in. Water bodies are more organized and defined, and leaseholders take full control of their fish harvests. Local people collect building materials such as reeds for fences, various plants and fuel wood for personal and commercial use, and sometimes are engaged in hunting and poaching of migratory birds.
CHAPTER: 4 (FOUR)
Methodology:
4.1 Study Site:
Hakaluki Haor is administrated under five Upazilas i.e., Kulaura, Borolekha, Fenchugong, Juri and Golapgong. My study was conducted at Chata beel and Jolla beel of Hakaluki Haor, situated respectively under Kulaura, & Barolekha Thana, Jaifarnagor & Talimpur Union. In here, Chatla beel is situated under the Zafarnagar union, and Juri Thana, adjacent respective villages are Sonapur, Vela Gau, Bachirpur, Kandi gau, Chalbon etc. Total area of Chatla beel is 302.9630 ha (CWBMP, 2005). The physical status of Chatla beel is moderately degraded. Ownership criteria are khas. (Community agrees with Govt. list). My study was conducted on Sonapur, Vela Gau. Village was selected on the basis of distance from the beel. On the other hand, Jallar beel is situated under Talimpur union and Barlekha Thana and adjacent respective villages are Sreerampur, Ranginagar, Molajuri, Dasghori etc. Total area of the Jolla beel is 181.3670 ha. (CWBMP, 2005). Physical status of Jolla beel is moderately Rich But, my study was conducted on Sreerampur and Molajuri on the basis of distance from the beel. In here also, ownership criteria are khas (Community agree with Govt. list).
4.2 Study Period: The study period spans over a three (3) months period time starts from February, 2007 to April, 2007.
4.3 Sample Technique:
A simple random method was applied to gather information on community based haor resource management and dependency pattern of local peoples on Hakaluki Haor. Standard methods have been used for baseline data collection on socio-economic, vegetation, fish and land use pattern etc.
4.4 Field Method:
To determine the nature of dependence of the people on the haor resources and to estimate the used value of haor resources, household level survey of 84, randomly chosen households were conducted between March-April 2007. A modular questionnaire was developed to elicit information from these households.
To value the productivity value of the Hakaluki haor, a structured questionnaire was used with the following modules:
4.4.1 General Information:
This included general information about the households such as total number of family members, number of earning members, education, religion, occupation, food habit, sanitation, drinking water, energy source, involvement with micro-credit system etc. This part was designed to find out the socio-economic condition of the population living around the haor area.
4.4.2 Agricultural Activities:
This part includes questions on agriculture, land ownership, expenditure and income from agricultural production, types of crops grown in the haor area, irrigation etc. It was designed to investigate agricultural production functions and income generation from agro-products in the haor area.
4.4.3. Fisheries:
This part was designed to collect data on fish diversity of the study area; existing fish catch system, fishing expenditure, production cost and earnings from fishing.
4.4.4. Access and Rights to Collect Haor Resources:
The questions of this section concerned rights of the inhabitants to haor resources, obstacles and hindrance they face during resource collection, labor market, partnership and economic activities based on haor resources.
4.4.5. Livelihood, Haor Resources and Other Non-use Value:
This segment of the questionnaire consisted of questions on livelihood aspects such as full time/part time fishing, fish cultivation, livestock, collection of wetland plants and other resources.
4.5. Data Analysis:
All data were collected using field diary and data sheet. All the quantitative data were incorporated in MS Excell data sheet for further analysis.
4.6. Limitations of the Study:
Limitations which arose during the study are given below:
1. Budget constraint: No financial support was available for the accomplishment of the study.
2. Time constraint: For in-depth study on regeneration status needs a prolonged period, but the present study spans for only six (6) months.
3. Unavailability on secondary data: Till today there has not been any study or survey on the overall status or management of the swamp forest that can be compared with the present study findings.
CHAPTER: 5 (FIVE)
Results and Discussion
5.1 Habitat category and land use pattern in Hakaluki Haor:
Habitat categories of Hakaluki Haor are beel, river or canals, fallow land, boro crops land and rabi crops land. The beels are found to use for Fishing, bird hunting, aquatic vegetation collection for food, fodder, fuel while River or canals for fishing, boating, and transportation. Fallow land is use for Grazing, vegetation, grass and fuel collection, etc. boro crop land use in winter rice cultivation at the seasonal parts of beels and haor edges. Rabi crop land use for oil seeds and pulses cultivation at the higher elevated land along the edges of the haor.
Table (5.1): Habitat category and land use of the Hakaluki Haor in winter and monsoon seasons:
Habitat
Category
(Land cover)
Area covered
Land use
(winter months)
(Acre)
%
Beel
12364.13
26.95
Fishing, bird hunting, aquatic vegetation collection for food, fodder, fuel.
River/canals
1532.56
3,34
Fishing, boating, transportation
Kandi/ fallow land
7185.41
15.66
Grazing, vegetation, fallow, grass and fuel collection, etc.
Boro crop
16151.42
35.21
Winter rice cultivation at the seasonal parts of beels and haor edges.
Rabi crop
8637.78
18.83
Oil seeds and pulses cultivation at the higher elevated land along the edges of the haor.
Total
45871.72
100.00
In monsoon, the whole haor is inundated and become a single sheet of water, fishing and boating is the major use.
Sourse: CNRS-2000.
As can be seen from the Table (5.1), 16151.42 acres of land used for boro rice cultivation covering over 35% of the total haor basin. Most part of almost every beels in the haor used for boro rice cultivation. However, these lands go under water in the monsoon and use as fisheries habitats and fishing is the major land use in the monsoon season. Rabi crop comprising of oil seeds and pulses are also grown in the haor basin but at the higher elevated lands along edges of the haor basin. Rabe land covers an area of 8638 acres (about 19% of the total haor basin).
Photograph 5.1: Agriculture in Hakaiuki Haor.
During monsoon season, total area (45000 acres), which were under different land uses in the winter season get inundated by river flooding and rain waters. The whole haor become a single sheet of water and look like a vast inland sea. During monsoon season, fishing and boat navigation therefore, is the only use of the haor. Thousands of families subsist on fishing in the flooded haor for their livelihood during monsoon season.
Apart from rice and oil seeds, different types of vegetables are also produced. There are suitable areas in the haor basin for winter vegetables cultivation but lack of irrigation facilities has been considered as constraints for expanding the vegetables cultivation practices. Water decreases in winter and suddenly increases during the April-May (Boishakh). It is learned that different types of hybrid vegetables are cultivated along with indigenous varieties.
5.2 Occupation of Household Head in the study Area:
As it is seen from the following graph, more than one third of the peoples were involved in agriculture (37%), followed by fishing (22)% and day labor (11)% respectively. In the following figure 5.1, details information was given:
(Figure 5.1): Occupation of Household Head
5.3 Distribution of Monthly Family Income:
As illustrated in Figure 5.2, there is variation in average monthly income between households. Approximately half of the populations earn between 1,500 and 5,000 BDT, and half above 5,000 BDT a month. In here, total population are divided into five (5) categories like very poor whose monthly income about less than 1500 BDT, poor whose monthly income varies from 1500-3000 BDT, lower middle whose monthly income varies from 3000-5000BDT, middle whose monthly income varies from 5000-7000 BDT and last one is rich whose monthly income above 7000 BDT. In below the following Figure, details data was given here-
(Figure 5.2): Distribution of Monthly Family Income
5.4 Average Income of the Households (Annul):
However, it was also clear during our reconnaissance survey that the majority of the people living in the haor basin are absentee landlords, and that most of the land are used only for one crop. This means that land is not tilled as intensively as in other regions, a positive sign for the environment. Consequently, the questionnaire included questions regarding the source of income.
Figure 5.3 shows that a large majority of local residents receive their income from crops (reflecting a dependency on haor land for rice cultivation), the next important source of income is river or water bodies and the third important source of income is remittance received from abroad.
Average income from crop selling (agriculture) was BDT 20,793 and 59.52% of the respondents earned this amount. The second main source of income is share cropping and annual income was BDT 13,419. Remittance from the expatriate Bangladeshis is the fourth source of income for 18%.
(Figure 5.3): Average Income of the Households (Annul)
5.5 Households Involvement with various local organizations related to Haor mgt:
In terms of membership of organizations only (33%) of the households were found to be involved directly with CNRS of which (83%) was male and (17%) was female, Cooperative (35 %), Farmer Cooperative (9.80%), Women Cooperative (10%) and so on as the following shows on Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: HHs involvement with various haor related organization:
5.6 Quality of life:
Quality of life is an important element of decision making in conservation efforts. Types of toilet used, source of electricity and source of fuel are considered good proxy variables for quality of life.
In terms of toilet facilities 54% of the households use ring slab, 26% uses sanitary latrine while regarding source of lighting, only 32% used electricity (or had access to electricity) and the large majority used kerosene. Considering the source of water, 95% uses tube-wells and another 70% uses ponds and rivers.
5.7 Source of Collection of Fuel in Haor Areas:
Regarding source of fuel for cooking, data shows that timber residue and cow-dung were the two major sources of fuel for cooking purposes. Over a quarter of respondent’s state that they collect these fuel sources from the haor. 27% fuel was collected from
Photograph: 5.2-(a) A local people brought a Hijal log from the haor area, 5.2(b) Local people brought Gagra as shoulder loads for domestic cooking.
the Haor, 25% fuel was collected from the village, 18% fuel was collected from their own garden, 9 % fuel was collected from the market and so on as shows on Figure 5.5:
(Figure 5.5): Fuel source in the locality
5.8 Ownership of Properties:
Nearly all respondents own their houses in the Hakaluki haor area. This reinforces the observations above that people in the Hakaluki haor basin are comparatively well-off in terms of property ownership, compared to other parts of Bangladesh. Figure 5.6, in here given percentage of owned properties-
(Figure 5.6): Ownership of Properties:
5.9 Dependence of Households on Haor Resources:
The property rights regime in the haor has several dimensions. First, agricultural land is privately owned and operated; second, the leased out beels are also private property for the period of lease while government regulates operations through its district administration; and third, the kanda land is government land with no private claims on it. These lands are the rural commons where grazing activities, collection of reeds, duck rearing activities take place. Various departments of the Government of Bangladesh including the Ministry of Environment and Forests have claims on this land or on part of
Photograph: 5.3(a) A grazing field in the locality during winter, 5.3(b) Duck rearing: one of the major income generating opportunities in the area.
this land. To implement a management strategy for the haor resources, it is important to understand the connectivity of people with this land.
5.10 People who collect haor resources from the commons and the private lands:
About two thirds of the households living in the region regularly visit the haor in order to collect wetland resources. However, they face the threats from private operators. Our survey reveals that 46% of them face such obstructions during collection of resources. 90% of them said that the barriers come while fishing in the beels (whereas big beels are leased out there are many small beels inside the haors which are part of the rural commons but the leaseholders often encroach into their rights as common people do not have legal papers to defend their access to these commons); (29%) have reported resistance during bird hunting (which shows that government campaigns to protect birds in the haors have found its footage); (19)% faced hindrance during fuel wood collection and (14%) faced difficulties while grazing herds in the commons.
In terms of whom the players are in creating such obstacles, As can seen from the table 5.2, nearly 75% of the people found the obstacles coming from the lease-holders, government & NGO’s officials were next in the line, (43%) and then the land owners (42%) Local influential people, interestingly, do not violate the rights of the common people on the beels/haor resources.
Table 5.2: Restriction on Haor resources utilization and access imposed by several bodies:-
Category label
Observations
Percent
Government & NGO’s Officers
In directly (Information collected from local peoples)
42.92
Lessee Holders
63
75.00
Influential locals
14
16.67
Lands owners
35
41.67
Others
5
5.95
5.11 Local peoples fishing rights on the Beels:
Figure 5.7 shows that only (10%) of beel lease holders and cooperatives have legal fishing rights. Nearly (50%) of the beels are 'open access' resources, 22% are under private ownership, and in (1%) of beels villagers have common rights, and in some beels rights are not well defined (0.5%).
This provides a picture of the potential for conflicts if there is an initiative to unify or to redefine their rights without appropriate consultation or participation and without amending legal regimes in the haor area.
(Figure 5.7): fishing rights on the Beels by local Peoples
Photograph 5.4: Three fishermen returning after fishing operation from the haor
5.12 Economic Activities in the Haor:
Other than fishing and rice cultivation, there are various economic activities from which people benefit. Figure 5.8 illustrating that fishing and fish related activities were the major source of livelihood for the people. Nearly 83% of people were involved in activities related to fish production from the haor. Cattle grazing and duck rearing were also very common in the haor and nearly 97% and 87% of the people were involved in it respectively. Fuel wood collection is also an important economic activity while poaching of birds was also crucial for nearly 16% of the people. About 9% people were involved in sand extraction while about 6% were engaged in reed collection.
(Figure 5.8): Economic Activities in the Haor
5.13 Initiators of Income Generating Activities in the Haor:
Initiators are so much important because without them, it is not possible to mange the whole activities were happened in the Haor areas. As can be seen from the Table 5.3, private individuals are the main initiators of economic activities. Around 9 % of the jobs were initiated by the Lessee of the beels. Similarly, local Member of the Parliament, or members of the elected local government institutions are responsible for nearly 36% of the economic activities.
Table 5.3: Initiators of Income Generating Activities in the Haor
Category Label
Observations
Percent
Local MP
(Information collected from Local peoples)
2.87
Lessee
82
9.80
Private Individuals
110
84.47
Influential people
21
2.51
Chairman/members of LGI
3
0.36
Total
240
100
5.14 Income Generation from various livelihood Activities:
As can be seen from the table, household income generated from various economic activities. Table 5.4(A) shows that average income from capture fisheries were over 16,980 BDT per household, and that nearly half of households are engaged in this. However, culture fishing was also a growing industry in the area, providing an average income of 13,440 Taka for participating households shown in the Table 5.4(B). Just under half of the populations were engaged in collecting other wetland products for their residential use, and about 6% in direct income-generation from haor resources.
Annual Income of Households from Haor related Economic Activities are divided into the following type:
Table 5.4(A). Aquatic resources:
Aquatic resources
Number
Percent
Annual Income
Full time fishing
50
59.52
36,911.00
Part time fishing
45
53.57
25,066.00
Fishing for self consumption
60
71.45
2,807.700
Fish drying
10
11.90
666.00
Net weaving
15
17.86
2000.00
Others
7
8.33
10,428.00
Table 5.4(B). Fish culture & Fish Trading:
Items
Number
Percent
Annual Income (TK)
Release/transport fries
2
2.38
2,250.00
Provide food and fertilizer in fish cultivation pond
1
0.12
5,000.00
Selling of cultivated fish
4
4.76
15,977.00
Fish trading
12
14.29
31,826.00
Poultry farming (snail/Jhinuk)
2
2.38
1,400.00
All Aquatic resources (fisheries fish trading
+poultry farming)
45
53.57
21,463.00
5.15 Average Income from non-aquatic resources:
In here, food for human means that aquatic fruits those were used as food like Singgara, Bat, and Halu etc. Mainly children were engaged to collect such types of food materials. Those are delicious. Sometimes, aquatic fruits were sold by them in the market and create scope for earning source. Table shows that average income from such types of fruits materials was 4.78%. Cattle feeding were the main issues in there, providing an average income was 3,430 TK. (35.71%). Secondly, fuel wood was about 2,620 TK (20.24%). And so on.
Table 5.4(C). Average Income from non-aquatic resources:
Items
Observation
Percent
Average Annual Income (TK)
Food for human
4
4.76
3,480.00
Feed for cattle
30
35.71
3,430.00
Roofing materials
2
2.38
1,085.00
Fencing materials
6
7.14
888.00
Fuel
17
20.24
2,620.00
Others
1
1.19
2,425.00
D. Annual income from other income generating activities:
In here, Vegetables cultivation was the main source which is about to 27.38%, second income source was small business which was related to the Haor activities, is around to 12 %. Handicrafts and cane made materials also a source of income but very small percentage.
Table5.4 (D): Annual income from other income generating activities:
Other Activities
Observation
Percent
Annual average income (TK)
Small business
10
11.90
26,300.00
Handicrafts
3
3.57
7,600.00
cane made materials
3
3.57
5,833.00
vegetable cultivation
23
27.38
2,613.00
Others
3
3.57
1,666.00
5.16 Resources collection by poor peoples from Hakaluki Haor:
The local people reported that 10-15 years back there were abundance of aquatic vegetation in the Hakaluki Haor area. Indiscriminate harvestion of the haor vegetation i.e. the grasses, herbs, shrubs and swamp trees (Hijol, barun, karoch. etc.) has caused elimination of vast area of plants. Once there in the deep haor was Hijol forest, now it is completely not seen in the area.
A total of 106 species of hydrophytes under different groups have been observed in the Hakaluki Haor area (CNRS, 2004). Hydrophytes have strong seasonal abundance and occurrences. Among the 48 species of wet season hydrophytes, 8 species were marginal, 14 were rooted emergent, 4 were submerged floating, 5 were rooted submerged, 11 were emergent with floating leaves and 6 species were free floating (CWBMP, 1999)..
Among the dry season plants 75 species of hydrophytes (59 genus and 36 families) exists; whereby feeding plants 15, medicinal plants 9, fuel-providing plants 6, vegetable producing plants 6, starch yielding plants 3 and ornamental plants 1.
Photograph 5.5 Paniphal: an important edible wetland species
found frequently in the locality.
A total of 115 species of terrestrial plants were observed during wet and dry seasons respectively. Among the wet season vegetation 29 species of shrubs, 16 small trees, 5 trees like and 62 species of trees were observed. In the dry season, 151 species were observed under 122 genus and 60 families. Among the species of dry season; Supari, Aam, Dumur, Kanak, Chamir, Kanthal, Jai bansh, Muli bansh were dominant in this region. Agor is dominant in northeastern side of the Haor. Among all of the plants, fruit tree 27, medicinal plants 11, timber yielding plants 38, flower/ ornamental plants 14, beverage producing plant 1, fiber yielding plants 11, spice and condiments plants 2, rubber yielding plant 1, and sugar yielding plants 2.(CWBMP, 1999)
Here given some species collection status before 10 years ago to till now:-
5.16(A). Collection Status before 10 years ago:
As illustrated in Table 5.5, huge number of species likes Hijol, Nolkhagra, Gagra etc, abundance of Fishes; Grasses etc were presented in there. As an example for this, 15-20 pcs Hijol Trees were collected within 1-1.5 hours, 50-60 pcs Nolkhagra, 2000-300 pcs Gagra, 3-4 kg Fish and 4-5kg Grasses were found respectively within 1-1.5hours, 1 hour, 1 hour and 1 hour. It’s proved those 10 years ago, Hakaluki Haor had a great abundance of natural resources.
Resources Collection Status By Poor Peoples
Items
Status before 10 years ago
Status before 5 years ago
Present collection status
Amount
Distance
Amount
Distance
Amount
Distance
Hijol
15-20 pcs
1-1.5 mile
10-15 pcs
2-3 mile
1-2 pcs
3-5 mile
Nol
50-60 pcs
1-1.5 mile
30-40 pcs
2-3 mile
20-30 pcs
3-5 mile
Gagra
200-300 pcs
1 mile
200-300 pcs
1-2 mile
200-300 pcs
2-2.5 mile
Fishes
3-4 kg
1 mile
3-4 kg
2-2.5 mile
3-4 kg
3-4 mile
Grasses
4-5 kg
1 mile
4-5 kg
2-3 mile
4-5 kg
3-3.5 mile
Table 5.5, Resources Collection Status by Poor Peoples
5.16(B) Collection Status before 5 years ago:
As can be seen from the Table 5.5(B), five (5) years ago from today, a considerable amount of Haor resources were presented in there. As for example, 1015 pcs Hijol, 30-40 pcs Nolkhagra, 200-300 pcs Gagra, 3-4 kg Fish, and 4-5 kg Grasses etc were found respectively within 2-2.5 hours, 1.5-2 hours, 1.5-2 hours, 2 hours and 2 hours.
5.16(C). Present collection status:
In Table C, showed that Haor resources touched a dead condition. As for example, nowadays only 1-2 pcs of Hijol are collected within 3-4 hours, but 10 years ago, huge amount of Hijol could be collected within 3-4 hours. Rest of the Haor resources also to be the same condition like grasses, fish etc.
Above the following discussion, we can say that, Hakaluki Haor faces a great threat of their environmental condition because of decreasing its natural resources which had played a great role to balance its environmental condition. But, nowadays due to the absences of natural resources, it’s loosed the balancing environmental condition. Such type of condition was created because of the illogical harvest of its resources. Large number of population within adjacent the Hakaluki Haor whose are fully dependent on its resources. As a result, it creates a great pressure on the Haor resources. Day by day, peoples demand is increasing, as a result pressure also increase on the Haor resources. But resources are limited and could not fulfill the increasing demand. Haor resources are collected in unwanted way; as a result it becomes to be Ecologically Critical Area. 5.17 Resources used pattern by the local people:
Most of the people’s in the Haor areas are poor, Illiterate. Most of the time, they lead their life by practicing farming, sometimes it’s converted to farming. It’s mainly depending on the seasonal variation. Using pattern of resources of the Haor areas also depend on the social condition of the Haor adjacent people’s.
Illustrating in the Table 5.6, in case of poor men, main occupation was the Farming, Labor was the secondary occupation. In cause of them, Most of the family members like male, Female, and Child are involve for doing such types of work. Here, noted that their monthly income varies from 3000-3500 BDT.
In case of middle man, their main income source was also farming, secondary income sources were poultry, take lease Beel from the Government. In here, male were involve for doing their work. Their average monthly income varies from 5000-5500 BDT. Most of the people are such type of group in the Haor areas.
And, in case of Rich man, their main income also come from the farming, but a major part of the income also come from the remittances, also come from the leased Beel. Here also only involve male person. Their average monthly income varies from 15000-16000 BDT.
Table 5.6 Resources used pattern by the local people
Condition
Main sources
Secondary sources
Engaged people
(M/F/C)
Income From Haor (TK)/ yr
Poor man
Farming, Fishing
Labor
M, F,C
40,000
Middle man
Farming
Poultry, Leased Beel, Small Business.
M
60,000
Rich man
Farming
Leased Beel, Remittances
M
2,00,000
Above average discussion, here we see that, adjacent peoples in the Haor area are fully depend on the Haor resources, specially middle man and poor man are fully involve on Hakaluki Haor for their livelihood activities. Here also noted that most of the people are under the poor and middle criteria. So, we can easily say that every person in the adjacent Haor area is depending on The Hakaluki Haor. So, Hakaluki Haor deals a great value for every living stage of the adjacent peoples.
CHAPTER: 6 (SIX)
Recommendation and Conclusion.
6.1 Recommendation:
After appraising the prevailing conditions through discussions with participating NGOs, various personnel and local people as well as field visits, it was realized that some practical initiatives should be taken to reverse the current plant resource degradation and improve the peoples socio-economic condition whose are living adjacent to the Hakaluki Haor areas. In the light of the objectives and outputs of the Sustainable Environment Management Programmed, the following recommendations are being proposed.
6.1.1 Establishment and management of Hijol-Koroch plantations:
Of all the prevailing species found in the Hakaluki Haor, Hijol, koroch, barun, Gagra etc. are the most important, useful and demand-oriented ones. Their abundance in the area is only a history now. Over-use, coupled with conversion of Hijol and karoch rich areas into paddy fields and lack of regeneration efforts have pushed the tree resources to the edge of extinction. Nowadays, only a few scattered clumps of old trees could be seen as remnants of the once flourishing freshwater forest cover. It is high time we paid attention to protection and reestablishment of these species.
The potential sites for Hijol and Koroch are
• The kandu areas of the bttof basins
• Submergible embankment edges in the floodplains
• Submergible roadsides in the floodplains
• Edges of the kuas in the floodplains
• Edges of excavated canals and their banks in both areas
Plantation may be established by involving local community groups through a mechanism of sharing the yield. In case of roadside plantations, the roadside farmers likely to be affected by the shade from the trees in the future could be included along with the benefit sharing group and their probable losses. Alternatively, these farmers could separately be included in the programmed as a stakeholder to achieve the desired goal of sustainability of these plantations.
Community involvement with a benefit sharing mechanism, in any tree planting/ afforestation programme is assumed to be the key to its success. A clear cut agreements, elucidating the proportion of benefits that would accrue to different stakeholders, need to be enforced and if required, such agreement should be registered. A scheme through any “food for work” programmed or daily wages, for watching and maintenance of the newly planted trees during the first two or three years of planting could ensure success.
6.1.2 Using native plants in the plantation programme:
It is wise to plant indigenous species in any plantation programme. The use of indigenous plants to a given region is crucial in habitat restoration. In a wetland restoration program, indigenous plants offer many advantages and help to create self- sustaining, low-cost habitat maintenance.
Native plants are drought and disease tolerant, many are low-lived perennials which survive for decades, attract butterflies, native birds and beneficial insects, help to restore plant diversity as well as stabilize and replenish soil nutrients, and they are sturdier than many of their non-native, even cultivated cousins. Indigenous plants also play a vital role in absorbing excess nutrients from runoff and therefore preferred in buffer strips, filter strips, and vegetated swales.
Although native plants require the same care and attention as exotics, cultivated species once established could survive and thrive for many years with little maintenance. In the wetland restoration or restoration of swamp forest, indigenous species viz. Hijol, Karoch, Barun, Panibaj, Kash, Khagra, etc. should be given.
6.1.3 Tree planting in homesteads:
The crowded homesteads have little opportunity for large scale tree planting, but there are enough scope for improving the existing stock and replacement. Some of the inhabitants of Hakaluki haor area commonly growing Kanthhal (jackfruit) trees might be replaced by economically more viable species like Safeda (Manilkara achras}, Grafted Boroi or Kul (Zizyphus mauritiana). The villagers may be encouraged to grow some fodder plants such as Babla (Acacia nilotica), etc. to meet the acute shortage of fodder during monsoon. In crowded homesteads, fruit species should be preferred to the forestry species. But, when there is enough space available, planting of forestry species such as Khoi Babla (Acacia nilotica), Ashok (Saraca indicda), Kadom (Anthocephalus chinensis), Raintree (Albizia saman), etc. would be beneficial for earning cash with little effort.
6.1.4 Plantation of patipata:
Patipata (Schumannanthus dichotomd) is a very suitable crop for growing in any marshy fallow land. The following sites under the project area in particular may be brought under patipata cultivation:
Ø The marshy fallow land in and around the homesteads.
Ø The shallow inundated areas of haor area.
Ø Third layer of vegetative “wave and erosion combating” belt, next to the homesteads in most of the haor and floodplain areas.
6.1.5 Establishment of three-layer vegetative protection belt for homesteads:
The homesteads in the low-lying areas (haor and beel) are subjected to wave action and water-thrust. Such features often cause soil erosion. To protect the homesteads, especially during the monsoon months, a vegetative protection measures is suggested in and around them. Three such belts may be created one behind the other with a view to reduce the intensity of wave action. The frontmost belts may be of karoch planted at a close spacing of 4'x4'. The next belt may be of Khagra (Pragmites karka) planted at a spacing of 1'xl'. The third belt will be the closer to the homesteads and its edge can be planted with Patipata at a spacing of 1'xl'. The width of these belts will vary from locality to locality, depending on the availability of suitable sites for planting. Establishment of such layers of vegetation will help to protect the homesteads from wave action. The karoch belt may gradually be replaced by monsoon. In crowded homesteads, fruit species should be preferred to the forestry species. But when there is enough space available, planting of forestry species such as Khoi Babla (Acacia nilotica), Ashok (Samoa indicd), Kadom (Anthocephalus chinemis), Raintree (Albizia saman) etc. would be beneficial for earning cash with little effort.
6.1.6 Encouraging household based products:
It has been observed that in haor areas, khejur (date palm) leaves are used for making mats by the skilled locals. These workers may be organized a little further and provided with snort training so Chat they can produce newer items like waste paper, fruit baskets, lamp-shades, decoration pieces, etc. using khejur fronds. These producrs are likely to fetch lucrative prices. . Groups may be organized and assistance may be provided to these groups along with securing some sort of marketing facilities in the nearby city markets. Similarly, necessary guidance and training may be given to the organized groups to enable them to produce quality mat and shitalpati from putipata. These will definitely help in poverty alleviation in the project areas.
6.1.7 Restoration of Swamp Forest :
Remnant stands of haor swamp forest species mainly Hijol (Batringtonia aculangulata) Koroch (Pongamia pinnata) and Barun (Craiaeva nurvala) are still sparsely distributed and common in some of the wetlands areas. Swamp forests are under pressure from conversion to agricultural land, grazing and felling. These processes are very rapidly affecting the remnant swamp forest adversely. Stakeholders of the projects, therefore, identified swamp forest restoration as one of the most important activities for sustainable development and management of the wetland ecosystem.
6.1.8 Development and planning:
a. The planning strategies for development of Hakaluki Haor areas maybe developed keeping in view the national needs and priorities for their conservation and development.
b. Participation of local communities/NGOs/CBOs/PVOs in planning,implementation and management of development interventions should be given due recognition by concern agencies.
c. Environmental mitigation measures should be made integral part ofall development projects, including those under implementation, having major adverse impacts through appropriate Environmental Impact Assessment (E1A).
d. Appropriate institutional framework needs to be set up by involving
all concerned agencies for effective coordination in sustainable management.
6.1.9 Monitoring:
a. Monitoring of impacts from development interventions in haor areas should constitute a component of development projects.
b. The critical areas should be continuously monitored to ensure thateffective measures are taken for arresting further degradation
6.1.10. It is necessary to establish a National Wetland Committee consistingof representatives from all relevant Ministries/Divisions/Departments/Agencies/NGOs environmental groups/researchorganizations and other concerned groups. The Committee wouldgive overall guidance to wetland management activities and monitorimplementation of the action programme. The Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest should take steps to initiate this kind ofarrangement.
6.1.11. Involvement of concerned people from different quarter should beensured from the very initial stage of development schemes in thewetland areas. There should be a continuous interaction between thelocal people and the development agents. This exchange process canreduce the adverse impacts of development schemes.
6.1.12 A final word on integration:
Fish, agriculture and forest resources though renewable, are very closely tagged with land and compete among themselves for the land, which is definitely scarce. Its allocation to these competing uses need to be well judged and integrated to harvest the best possible benefits, not only in terms of economic gain alone, but also for the overall or global benefits such as biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, etc. Thus integration of these sectors is of' utmost importance. To achieve this goal, well-judged adjustments from time to time will be required.
6.2 Conclusions:
The fact that Hakaluki haor has been designated as an Ecologically Critical Area signifies its importance as a reservoir of disappearing natural resources. This study underscores the reality that that Hakaluki also constitutes an important source of natural capital, which yields high economic and livelihood values to surrounding populations and the country as a whole.
Survey findings show that more than 80% of local households depend on wetland resources, and that the bulk of income-earning and livelihood opportunities in the area are wetland-based. The wetland also generates a series of economically important ecosystem services, which function to underpin, support and safeguard essential production and consumption processes. In total, it has been estimated that Hakaluki haor is worth at least BDT 585 million, or an average of BDT 48,000/hectare. (CWBMP-2000).
The study describes inter-linkages between wetland ecology and economic processes. In addition to confirming the economic value attached to wetland conservation, it highlights the costs associated with the loss or degradation of wetland goods and services in terms of losses to livelihoods and the economy.
To conserve biodiversity and protect the natural resources of Hakaluki Haor the initiative and measure should be taken which are swamp forest restoration and conservation, sustainable management of fisheries resources, production of wildlife, resources substitution for conservation of wetland ecology, ensure alternative sources of income and development of community based organization.
Government should formulate appropriate policy and necessary law and should to create awareness among (he people to preserving it biodiversity. It is also necessary to co-ordinate among different Ministry, specially Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Ministry of water resource, Ministry of land.
References
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Appendices
Appendix-1: List of wetland plants found in Hakaluki Haor
Submerged:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Muamia, kaowathukri
Sagittaria guayanemis
Alismataceae
Chhotokul
Sagittaria sagittifolia
Alismataceae
Ghechu
Aponogeton nalans
Aponogetonaceae
Ghechu
Aponogeton undulates
Aponogetonaceae
Jhangi, katajhanji
Ceratophyllum desmerswn
Ceartophyllaceae
Jhanji
Ceratophyllurn desmersum
Ceartophy11aceae
Shayala
Blyxa echinospema
Hydrocharitaceae
Kureli
Hydrilla verticillata
Hydrocharitaceae
Panikola, kaorali
Ottelia alismoides
Hydrocharitaceae
Pataseola, Bicha
Vallisnaria spiralis
Hydrocharitaceae
Keorafi
Potamogelon crispus
Potamogetoceae
Keorali
Potamogeton mucronatus
Potamogetoceae
Keorali
Potamogeton peciinatus
Potamogetoceae
Free floating:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Topapana
Pistia staatiotes
Araceae
Khudipana
Pemma pcrpusilla
Lemnaceae
Khudipana
Spirodela polyrthiza
Lemnaceae
Khudipana
Spirodela punctaia
Lemnaceae
Guripana
Wolffia arrhiza
Lemnaceae
Guripana
Wolffia microscopica
Lemnaceae
Chotojhanji
Ulricularia aurea
Lentibulariaceae
Chotojhanji
Utricularia exileata
Lentibulariaceae
Chotojhanji
Utricularia stellaris
Lentibulariaceae
Chandmala
Nymphoides cristatum
Menynthaceae
Panchuli
Nymphoides indicum
Menynthaceae
Sushnisak
Met si lea quadrifofiata
Mensileaceae
Padma
Nelumbo nucifera
Nymphaceae
Sada, Raktoshopla
Nymphaea none-half
Nymphaceae
Nilshapla
Nymphaea setella
Nymphaceae
Kochuripana
Vichhornia pseudoraphis
Pontederiaceae
Kuripana, Indurkan
Saivinia psvudoraphis
Salvinaceae
Tetulapana
Salvinia natans
Salvinaceae
Kutipana
Volla pinnata
Salvinaceae
Karpur
Limnophlla heterophylla
Scrophulariaceae
Sedges & Meadows:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Dhol kalmi
Ipomoeae ftstulosa
Convolvulaceae
Panichaise
Fleocharis dulcis
Cyperaceae
Shola, Banda
Aeschynomena aspera
Fabaceae
Katshola, Bhatshola
Aeschvnomena indica
Fabaceae
Sitalpati
Clynogyne dicholoma
Marantaceae
Panidoga
Ludwigia repens
Onagraceae
Ekor, khuri
Selerostachya fusca
Poaceae
Pinginatchi
Setariafusca
Poaceae
Kulkulle, kauni
Selaria glaitca
Poaceae
Bishkatali
Polygonum barbatum
Polygonaceae
Bishkatali, Kukra
Polygonum glabrum
Polygonaceae
Kukra
Polygonum lanatum
Polygonaceae
Kukra
Polygonum pedunculare
Polygonaceae
Bishkatali, Kukra
Polygonum stagninum
Polygonaceae
Baranukha, kechur
Monochoria hastate
Polygonaceae
Reeds:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Khagra, Nol
Phragmites karka
Poaceae
Haicha, Sachishak
A Iternanthera sessilis
Amaranthaceae
Kata note
Amaranthus spinosus
Amaranthaceae
Fulkuri
Ageratum conyzoidcs
Asteraceae
Machiti, Hachuti
Cetipeda orbicularis
Asteraceae
Machiti, Hachuti
Cotula hemisperica
Asteraceae
Assamlata
Eupaiorium odoratum
Asteraceae
Tripankhi
Coldenia procumbens
Boraginaceae
Baron
Cratacva nurvala
Capparidaceae
Chapali ghash
Chenopodium ambrosoides
Capparidaceae
Swarnalata
Cuscuta auslralis
Convolvulaceae
Niratraba
Cypents cephaloles
Cyperaceae
Panichaise
Eleocharis atropurpurea
Cyperaceae
Morchagra, Banjhal
Crolon bonplandlanum
Euphorbiaceae
Chitki
Phvllanthus dislicha
Euphorbiaceae
Chitki
Phyllanthus reticulates
Euphorbiaceae
Gotagamer, Panidumur
Trewia nudiflora
Euphorbiaceae
Hijol
Barringtonia aculangula
Lecythidaceae
Karanch
Pongamia pinnata
Papilionoideae
Durba
Cynodon dactylon
Poaceae
Chota fulka
Digitaria longifolia
Poaceae
Gaicha, chapre
Eleusina indica
Poaceae
Sadaphuli, Sadajabria
Denlella repens
Rubiaceae
Bias, Panihijal
Salix teirasperma
Salicaceae
Alughas, Kakdim
Glinus lotoides
MoUuginaceae
Nemuti, Namuti
Grangea madaraspatana
Asteraceae
Hatisur
Heliotropium indicum
Boraginaceae
Brahmishak
Herpestis manniera
Scrophulariaceae
Jalibet
Calamus tennis
Aracaceae
Barahalkasunda
Cassia occidentalis
Fabaceae
Minjiri, Eskikoroi
Cassia siamea
Fabaceae
Bansupari, Chaur
Caryola urens
Aracaceae
Thankuni
Centella asiatica
Apiaceae
Bulkokra
Chaetocarpus casianocarpus
Euphorbiaceae
Jambura
Citrus grandis
Rutaceae
Bamanhati, Banchat
Cleorodendrum siphonanthus
Verbenaceae
Narical
Cocos nucifera
Aracaceae
Jhanjhani
Croialaria saltiana
Fabaceae
Gab, Desighab
Diospyros perigrina
Ebenaceae
Rajghanta
Datura suaveolcns
Solanaceae
Mander, Piltamander
Erythrina variegate
Fabaceae
Tilamander
Erythrina ovatifolia
Fabaceae
Bot
Ficus benghalensis
Moraceae
Hijulia
Ficus rumphii
Moraceae
Assawath
Ficus rcligiosa
Moraceae
Dumur
Ficus his pi da
Moraceae
Jarul
Lagerstroemia speciosa
Lythraceae
Am
Mangifera indica
Anacardiaceae
Tikiokra
Mdochia corchorrifotia
Sterculaceae
Veratilata
Mikanla cordata
Asteraceae
Kala
Musa paradisiaca
Musaceae
Tulshi
Ocimum amcricanum
Lamiaceae
Bantepari
Physalis minima
Solanaceae
Monchata
Randia dwnclorum
Rubiaceae
Reri, Bheranda
Ricinus communi
Euphorbiaceae
Rendi, Rain tree
Samanea saman
Fabaceae
Harua, Batul
Sapium indicum
Euphorbiaceae
Khudijam
Syzygium fruticosa
Myrtaceae
Kalojam
Syzygium cumini
Myrtaceae
Kathadam.Deshibadam
Terminalia catappa
Combretaceae
Appendix-2: Globally Significant Wetland Species
Scientific name
Local Name
Alternanthera philoxeroides
Malancho
Apnogeton spp.
Ghechu
Colocasia esculenla
Kachu, loti
Enhydra fluctuam
Helancha
Eichhorina spp.
Kachuripana
Euryale ferox
Makhna
Hrgrophila auriculata
Kulekhana
Ipomoea aquatica
Kalmi
Nelumbo nucifcra
Padma
Nymphaea nouchali
Shapla
Otleiia alismoides
Ramkarola, sham kola
Persicarea spp
Biskatali, Pani morich
Trapa. maximowiczii
Singra
Appendix-3: Survey Questionnaire:
1) District Code:
2) Number of Family Members:
3) Number of Earning Family Members:
4) Educational Qualification:
5) Village:
6) What is the main occupation of your family?
a. Agriculture - (own land, leased, orchard, nursery)
b. Fishing - (full time, part time, leased, guard, trader)
c.Transport related activities - (Boatman, bus driver)
d. Laborer - (Agriculture, industrial, trading)
e. Small business - (handicraft etc.)
f. Remittance
g. Others - Livestock, poultry, herbal healers student, service holder)
7) Average monthly income?
1. Maximum 1500 BDT
2. 1500-3000 BDT
3. 3000-5000 BDT
4. 5000-7000 BDT
8) What were the income sources?
Sources
Income (TK)
Agriculture
From crops
Leased
Nursery and orchard
Laborer
Agriculture
Industrial and Trade
Fishing/ Fish cultivation
From river, haor, beel
Pond
Transportation
Road
Water way
Business
Handicrafts
Shops
Small industry
Remittance
Foreign
Inland
Rearing
Livestock
Poultry
9) Type of house: Please provide information on type of house you are living (only for bedroom, kitchen and drawing room)
Type of wall
Material used for roofing
Straw
Tin
Cement
Others
Straw
Bamboo
Wood/tin
Brick and cement
10) Type of latrines in the house: 1= Sanitary 2=Ring/slab 3= Open latrine 4= Bush/ open place/canal/river bank 5= Others
11). Source of water for drinking, cooking and bathing: 1= Deep tube-well 2= Shallow tube-well 3= Well 4= Pond/canal/river water 5= rain water 6=Tap water 7= Others
12) Source of light:
1 = Kerosene 2= Electricity 3= Bio-gas
4= Candles 5= solar lamp 6= Battery powered light
13) Information about fuel wood collection:
Fuel wood Type
Engaged peoples( M / F)
Quantity ( uses)
Low
Medium
High
1. Hijol
2. Karach
3. Nol Khagra
4. Dry Trees
5. Others
Note: M= Male, F= Femal
14) Other expenditure by the family:
Area of Expenditure
Expenses
Time code
(1 =daily 2=weekly 3 =monthly 4 =yearly )
Clothing
Education
Health/ treatment
Electricity
Energy
Transport
Entertainment
Others
15. a) Involving any organization?
1= irrigation/Pump 6=cooperative 2= farmer's association 7=youth society 3=Fishermen society 8= women cooperatives 4= farmer-labor union 9=industrial labor union 5=volunteer
b) Family members who are involve?
16) Do you own the land where you grow crops? 1= Yes 2=No,
17) Economic activities in Haor:
Items
Land Used in Haor (%)
Produced
Consumed
Selling
Quantity (TK/ Year)
Crops
Rice
Fish
Vegetables
Poultry
Grazing
Others
18) Do you visit the haor to extract its natural resources? Yes=1 no=219) Do you face any restrictions during resource collection? Yes=1 no=2
20) What are the activities get hindered in haor?
(1) During fishing (2) Tree cutting (3) Fuel wood collection (4) Herb collection (5 Hunting (6) Sand extraction (7) Food collection 8) Fodder collection (9) Grazing (10) Poultry
(II) Cow dung collection (12) others
21) Who imposes the restrictions?
1. Government
2. Lease holder
3. Influential persons
4. Land owner
5. Others
22) Are you or your family members involved in fishing?
1. Fish catching
2. Whole selling
3. Individual selling
4. Fish drying
5. Fish weaving
6. Net selling
7. Fishing boat
8. Labor
9. Ice selling
10. Ice factory
23) What are the existing fisheries resource management practices?
1. Community based management
2. Leasing system
3. Open access
4. Equal right
5. Village right
6. Individual right
7. Others
24) How do people participate in the existing fishing system?
1. Labor
2. Trading
3. Food collection
4. Service
5. Others
25) What are the economic activities that depend on haor resources?
1. Commercial fishing
2. Fuel wood collection
3. Bird hunting
4. Nol khagra selling
5. Sand extraction
6. Grazing
7. Poultry
8. Others
26) Who are the initiators and who are the workers in implementing the activities?
1. Local MP
2. Lease holder
3. Local people
4. Influential persons
5. Others
27) Who are working as labors?
1. Locals
2. Villagers
3. Day labors
4. Others
28) Please answer the followings if you and/or your family members are involved in any haor resource collection/extraction.
Items
Participants (M/F/C)
Uses
Quantity
Fish
Grass/ Nol khagra
Hijol/ Korach Phul
Singra/ Paniphol
Chan/ Baida /Eilla
Vegetables
Snails / Shinai
Birds
Herbs /Medicinal plants
Others
29).Do you sell anything that you collect from Haor? Yes =1 No =2
30).How much that contributes to your income?
1) Below 10%
2) 10%-50%
3) 50%-90%
4) 90%-100%
31) How much of your annual income you spend on enhancing and regenerate haorresources?
1) Below 10%
2) 10%-20%
3) 20% - 30%
4) Above 30%
32). what vehicle you and your family members use carry luggage?
1 = Rickshaw 2 = Non motorized van 3 = Taxi/ jeep
4 = Pick up van/ truck 5 = Bus/ Mini Bus
6 = Motorized van/ Baby taxi 7 =Motor cycle
8 = Cycle 9 = Boat
10 = Engine Boat 11 = Walking 12=Other.
33). what is your monthly expenditure on transportation?
1) Below 100 Taka
2) 100-200
3) 200-400
4) 400-500
5) Above 500 Taka
34).How is you benefiting from migratory birds? 1) Meat as food 2) Selling 3) Pet/breeding 4) Increases fish number 5) Aesthetic 6) Enhance rice production by providing fertilizer
35) What is the reason of flooding in haor area in your opinion?
1) Decreased depth of the river bed due to sedimentation 2) Decreased depth of the haor bed due to siltration 3) Absence of embankment 4) Fish culture 5) Other
36) Why should we protect the haor: (Please mention any 5 of the below).
1) Source of livelihood 6Aesthetic and source of recreation 2) Source of food 7) Good transportation route 3) Source of silt that that make the land fertile 8) Protect the natural beauty 4) Source of fuel 9) supply of water 5) Increase fish production 10) others
37) Dependency pattern in adjacent Hakaluki Haor :
Income Group
Activities
Results
Quantity ( TK)
Remarks
Poor
Lower Middle
Middle
Rich/ Member / Chairman
38. Resources collection by poor peoples from Hakaluki Haor: A. Collection Status before 10 years ago?
Items
Amount
Distance
Required Time
B. Collection Status before 5 years ago?
Items
Amount
Distance
Required Time
C. Present collection status:
Items
Amount
Distance
Required Time
39. Have any Haor based Cottage industry in adjacent Hakaluki Haor? 1. Yes. 2. No40. Resources used pattern by the local people:
Activities
Main source?
If no, then-Secondary source?
Engaged people
(M/F/C)
Income
From Haor (TK)
Primary
Secondary
Yes
no
Poor man
Middle man
Rich man
Others
CHAPTER: 1 (ONE)
1.1 Introduction:
Hakaluki Haor is the country's largest inland freshwater wetland ecosystem, located at Fenchuganj and Golapganj upazilas of Sylhet district and Baralekha, Juri and Kulaura upazilas under Moulvibazar district (CNRS,2002). There are 11 unions (Bhatera, Baramchal, Bhakshimail, Jaifarnagar, Barni, Talimpur, Sujanagar, Paschim Juri, Gilachhara, Uttar Bade Pasha and Sharifganj) under these five upazilas of the two districts. The Haor is located in the north-east of Bangladesh between 24.35nN and 24.45N latitude and 92.00'E and 92.08E longitude with an area of 18,383 ha (45,406 acres) (CNRS, 2002). It is a shallow water basin nested between the Patharia and Madhab hills in the East and Bhatera hill to the West. There are more than 238 small, medium and large interconnecting beels, some of which are perennial and others seasonal. During the dry season, approximately 4,4000 ha are is covered by the beel, but with the onset of the rains in the summer, the entire area floods to about four and half times of this size (18,383 ha) and remains under water for up to five months. During this period, all the beels are united as one large lake, or haor, making Hakaluki Haor the largest freshwater wetland in Bangladesh. The haor is mainly fed by the Juri/ Kantinala, Sonai/ Bordol, Damai. Fanai, and Kuiachara Rivers, out of which the Bordol/ Sonai, and Juuri/ Kantinala Rivers are originated in India. Land ownership is not equally distributed among the population of the ECA. Most of it is owned by a small number of rich farming families. The central area of the ECA that are prone to flooding belongs to the Government.
Hakaluki Haor once was with plenty of wildlife and aquatic resources and covered with swamp forest, which in the recent time has become a fast-degraded landscape and facing increased pressure and threats (Choudhury, 2005). Such rapid degradation of the wetland ecology is causing devastating consequences on the community people living in, around and downstream of the Hakaluki Haor, who, for generations, were dependent for their livelihoods upon vital functions, services and benefits provided by this wetland. About 200,000 people live around the haor (Choudhury, 2005).All of them, more or less, are dependent on the resources of the haor for their livelihoods. As the haor floods annually, settlements are clustered along its slightly raised fringes. On ground of such threats and rapid degradation of the resources and in recognition of the urgent need to protect the unique ecology and biodiversity of the haor, Government of Bangladesh has declared Hakaluki Haor as an "Ecologically Critical Area" (ECA) under the provision of the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA), in 1999. (CNRS, 2002).
The Hakaluki Haor supports a wide variety of agricultural and horticultural crops and fast growing introduced timber species (Khan, 2005).A significant number of medicinal plants is also found in the Haor. Fisheries and agriculture are the two major livelihoods for local people living in and around the ECA (CNRS Final draft, 2004).Other livelihood supports provided by the Haor include cattle grazing, NTFP collection, duck rearing, and sand mining. Besides, the Haor serves generally as a transport pathway particularly while it is flooded, provides water for drinking and washing, provides micro-climate regulation, and holds significant potential for generating income as a tourist attraction. Primary stakeholders of the resources of the Haor are farmers, fishers and collectors of resources from the Haor like aquatic vegetation, cow fodder, aquatic animals and medicinal plants.
Hakaluki Haor ecosystem supports at least 73 species of wetland vegetation, which is nearly half of the national total of 158 species of vegetation (Choudhury and Faisal, 2005). The flora of Hakaluki Haor is a combination of ecologically important remnant swamp forest and reed lands although many of these species including vegetations are now largely absent.
Hakaluki Haor is a critical habitat and breeding ground for fish and other aquatic species and considered as one of the four major "mother fisheries" in Bangladesh. More than 100 fish species are available in the Haor, one third of which are listed as engender (Choudhury and Faisal, 2005). Some of the major economically important fishes are Rui (Labeo rohita), Gonia (L. gonius), Kalibush (L calbasu), Katla (Katla catla), Mrigal (Cirhinus mrigala), Boal (Wallago atiu), Pangus (Pangasius pangasitts), Air (Aorichthys aor), Guizza air (Aovichihys seenghala), Bagha air (Bagarins bagarius), Rita (Rita rita), Magur (Clarias batrachus), Singhi (heleropneules fossils), Kani pabda (Ompok binocidaius), Madhu pabda (Ompok pabda), Tengra (Mystus lengra and AI. villains), Koi (Anabus testudineus), etc. Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) and small prawns’ are also available in the small rivers and canals. (CWBMP, 2004).
The Haor is also the home for globally significant waterfowl especially large number of' migratory duck species that pass the winter season in the EGA. There was an estimation of wintering population of ducks in 1960s at between 40,000 to 60,000 (CWBMP, 2004). The numbers have now declined considerably. Hakaluki Haor is rich in wildlife resources also. There are a number of varieties of mammals and reptiles including snakes, frogs, turtles, toads, tortoises, Irrawady Squirrel, and the Gangetic Dolphin that inhabits in the Kushiara River.
The Hakaluki Haor wetland has been subject to severe degradation and loss including significant declining of its resources that have been in turn affected the livelihoods of those dependent on the wetlands and their resources. The causes responsible for such degradation of wetland habitat and their resources are identified as sedimentation, development interventions such as conversion of wetland and forest land into agricultural land, drainage and river diversion for irrigation, degradation of aquatic habitat due to agro-chemical pollution from agricultural lands and tea states and over exploitation of the wetland resources by the rapidly growing human population in absence of appropriate policy and management measures.
The forest resources (swamp and reed land plants) in the Haor lack proper conservation and management. Due to absence of such management measures, over and illegal exploitation by the local people and leaseholders for fire wood, placing for making brush shelter in the beels, cattle fodder, herbal medicine, food, housing and mat making materials. The swamp/reed land plants are gradually declining. The swamp and reed land plants also provide habitat and food for wildlife, fishes birds and serves as barriers against the erosive effects of wave action, etc.
The beels/canals/rivers (jalmahals) within the Haor owned by the Government are supposed to lease out to the actual fishers as per present policy for exploitation of fisheries resources but the local influential somehow manage the lease of the jalmahals. So, the actual fishers (mostly poor) have lost their access rights to fishing in the Haor, where they work as laborers and on share basis or by paying license fees to the leaseholders. However, the poor fishers and the local people have free access floodplain (privately owned land) during rainy season, when the Haor becomes a large sheet of water. Fishing in the flowing rivers is open and free for all. Increasing fishing pressure due to rapid growth of human population and destructive fishing by harmful gears, dewatering, etc. in the Haor are responsible for depletion of fisheries resources.
1.2 Study objectives:
This study aims to provide information about the dependency pattern on Hakaluki haor in terms of its economic, ecological and social benefits for local communities. It has the following objectives:
a) Illustrating the interactions between the people, resources and economic activities.
b) To know about the life style of Haor adjacent local peoples & their economic activities on Haor areas.
c) To assess inter-linkages between economic & ecological function of the Haor system that is directly linked with local livelihoods.
1.3 Rationale of the study:
Hakaluki Haor (HH) is one of the important habitats of swamp forest among few wetlands in Bangladesh. The area of the HH is approximately 18000 hector. One third of this wetland has habitat of swamp forest, which has been converted, into scrub forest, grazing land and agricultural land over the years. However, there are still some sporadic patches of degraded swamp forests of about 1000 hector around HH in the centre of the haor. Swamp forest provides numerous benefits to the local people. A number of people around the Haor depend on it for fuel wood, fodder and thatching materials. Swamp forest is the sources of many life supporting medicinal plants such as Shotomuli (Asparagus raccmosus), Onontomul (Tylophora asthmatica), etc.
Ecologically, swamp forest is highly resilient. Despite the severe disturbance and stress, this forest has been observed to have highly .self-regenerating potential.
The existence of degraded scrub swamp forest with numerous seedlings, coppices from the remaining stump of trees clearly indicate the potentiality for natural restoration. Hijol (Barringtonia acutangulata), Barun (Crataeva nurvala), and Koroch (Pongamia pinnuta) are the important swamp trees, which arc highly potential to regenerate from seedlings and coppices. In the Redland, Nol (Phragmites karka) is also capable of regeneration from vegetative reproduction.
Although, major swamp species and aquatic plants of HH have unique regeneration strategies, the immense anthropogenic disturbance and stress obstruct the trajectory of natural restoration. Conversion of swamp forest habitual into agricultural land is the major and the worse anthropogenic disturbance, which results, completes depletion of swamp habitat and destruction of biological legacy for further regeneration. Grazing and trampling by the cattle is also another severe threat to the newly regenerated of swamp and reed and plant species. Indiscriminate fuel wood collection by the dwellers at sapling stage of swamp trees species leaves no room for the further development into mature stage.
In this context, an urgent protection measure is essential to reduce the direct threats on and to allow the plants to be prolific by using their own regeneration strategies in different swamp habitats. In addition, creating awareness and sensation in the local communities about the significance of protection by visualizing the natural restoration of swamp forest should be a concern of utmost importance.
CHAPTER: 2 (TWO)
Literature Review:
2.1 Definition of wetland
For the purpose of Ramsar Convention, as adopted in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide docs not exceed six meters (Khan et al., 1994).
Bangladesh possesses enormous wetland areas out of which the principal ones are rivers and streams, freshwater lakes and marshes including haors, baors and beels, water storage reservoirs, fishponds, flooded cultivated fields and estuarine systems with extensive mangrove swamps. There are about 700 rivers in Bangladesh, the estimated total length of which is 24,140km (Akonda, 1989).
The major wetlands are shown in Map 2.1:
Map 2.1: Major Wetlands of Bangladesh.
Globally, wetlands are amongst the most fertile and productive ecosystems and important breeding grounds for fisheries. They serve as a filtering system to clean up polluted water, protect coastlines from erosion and act as barriers against storm surges besides providing people with a wide range of staple food plants, lush grazing lands and fuel. It is the dynamic interaction of the terrestrial and aquatic systems with people that makes wetlands so environmentally valuable. Wetlands also provide habitat for a rich variety of resident and migratory waterfowl. Their scenic beauty can support the development of tourism. Their resources play a significant role in other economic activities like extraction of reeds and harvesting of food plants and those of medicinal importance.
2.2 Classification of wetlands
Wetlands of Bangladesh can be classified on the basis of their hydrological and Ecological functions and land type concept into the following categories (Dugan,
1990).
Saltwater wetlands:
a) Marine:
i. Permanent shallow waters at low tide, e.g., bay
ii. Coral reefs, e.g., St. Martin's reef
b) Estuarine:
i. Intertidal mud, sand or salt flats with limited vegetation, e.g., newly
accreted land.
ii. Intertidal marshes
iii. Intertidal forested wetlands including mangroves, e.g., Sundarbans.
c) Lagoonal:
i. Brackish to saline lagoons with narrow connections with the sea.
Freshwater wetlands:
Riverine wetlands
i. Permanent rivers and streams including some char land.
ii. Temporary seasonal rivers and streams
Lacustrine wetlands:
There are over a thousand lakes of varying sizes in Bangladesh, the greatest concentrations being in the main delta region covering the districts of Rajshahi, Pabna. Kushlia, Jessore, Faridpur, Camilla and Noakhali. The haor basin comprising a vast alluvial plain with a mosaic of wetland habitats including haors and beels is bounded by the hill ranges of Meghalaya on the north, hills of Tripura and Mizorain on the south, and the high lands of Monipur on the east. The numerous rivers rising in these hills cause extensive flooding during the monsoon. During the dry season, most of the water drains out leaving a series of isolated beds, which are often overgrown with aquatic vegetation. As the water level recedes, the exposed alluvial soils are extensively cultivated for rice.
Different types of inland water bodies and their areas (in sq km):
Open inland waters
a) Rivers
7,497
b) Estuarine area
6,110
c) Beels and haors
1,142
d) Innundable floodplains
54,866
e) Kaptai lake
668
Closed waters
a) Ponds
1,469
b) Baors
55
c) Brackish water
1,080.
Farms
Total
72,899
Source: (Akonda 1989 and Khan 1994.)
2.1.Table: Different types of inland water bodies and their areas (in sq km)
Definition of different terms of wetland (FAP, 1993):
Haors which arc bowl- shaped depressions between the natural levees of a river subject to monsoon flooding every year, are mostly found in the eastern region of greater Mymensingh and Sylhet districts, known collectively as Haor basin covering an area of approximately 24,500 sq.km.
Baors or oxbow lakes, formed by dead arms of rivers, are situated in the moribund delta of the Ganges in Kushtia, Jhenaidah, Jessore and Faridpur.
Beels arc saucer-like depressions which generally retain water throughout the year, and are mostly overgrown with marsh vegetation during the dry season, e.g. Chalan beel in the northwestern region.
True hikes: There arc only three true lakes in Bangladesh, viz. Rainkhyongkine and Bogakine in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Ashuhila beel at the northern end of the Barind Tract.
Palustrine wetlands:
a) Permanent freshwater marshes and swamps with emergent vegetation
b) Permanent peal-forming freshwater swamps dominated by Typha
c) Freshwater swamp forest, e.g., Hijol (Barringtonia acutangulala) forests of lowland,
Manmade wetlands:
a) Aquaculture ponds (brackish and freshwater)
b) Irrigated lands and irrigation channels
c) Salt pans
d) Hydro-dams, e.g., Kaptai Lake
Kaptai reservoir
The only large artificial wetland is Kaptai reservoir formed as a consequence of a hydro-electric dam completed in 1963, and which has flooded over 76,600 ha of pristine forested valleys and cultivated land in the Chittagong Hill Tract (Akonda, 1989). Other artificial water bodies include many thousands of small tanks and fish ponds scattered throughout the country. These include also large areas of shrimp aquaculture in the coastal districts
2.3 Importance of wetlands:
Wetlands have great ecological, economic, commercial and socio-economic importance and values. They contain very rich components of biodiversity like flora and fauna of important local, national and regional significance. The principal functions of wetlands are (IWRB, 1992 and Dugan, 1990):
Ground water recharge, ground water discharge, storage of flood water, shoreline stabilization and reduction of erosion, sediment trapping, nutrient retention/removal, support for food chains, fisheries production, habitat for wildlife, recreation, natural heritage values, biomass production, water transport, bio-diversity preservation and micro-climate stabilization.
Wetlands in Bangladesh arc a very rich depository of vegetations, aquatic plants, reeds and algae. The floral composition is relatively uniform throughout the haors, beels and baors but the dominance varies seasonally.
Wetlands are nationally important for a variety of reasons:
۞ Biodiversity:
The large and varied wetland environment is rich in species diversity. Of more than 5000 species of (lowering plants and 1500 of vertebrates, of which approximately 750 are birds and over 500 are coastal, estuarine and freshwater fish, up to 300 plant species and some 400 vertebrate's species are judged to be dependent on wetlands for all or part of their life span (Khan et, al., 1994). Wetlands also provide habitat for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, a significant number of endangered species of international interest, and a large number of commercially important ones.
۞ Fisheries:
The inland capture fishery is the most important sub sector in terms of total catch, source of employment and supply of animal protein. It is based on the countries vast freshwater resources and some 270 species of fin and shell fish which inhabit them. Essential habitats for the inland fisheries comprise open and closed water habitats, including rivers, canals, floodplains, haors, heels, baors and small roadside depressions. Although discrete in the dry season, these water bodies become interconnected during the monsoon and provide critical habitats for completion of the life cycles of a large number offish species.
۞ Agricultural diversity:
There are many local varieties of rice, conservatively estimated to number in the thousands, as well as other existing or potential commercially important plants, which provide a valuable gene pool to ensure continued development of improved varieties for the future.
۞ Tourism:
It remains an infant if non-existent economic activity, but there is substantial foundation for the view that the countries natural resources could support development of richer tourism.
۞ Other economic activities:
Wetlands also support a significant range of other economic activities other than fishing, such as extraction of reed, harvesting of edible aquatic vegetation and their products, medicinal herbs, shells, etc.
2.4 History and heritage of wetlands:
Wetlands constitute a part of man's natural heritage. We derive aesthetic enjoyment, inspiration and a feeling of relaxation from their scenic beauty. For thousands of years wetlands have played a significant part in the development of human society. Archaeological findings confirm that many of the earliest human settlements such as those of the Mesolithic period were dependent on wetlands for food, water clothing and shelter.
The civilization in Asia and the Far East developed in floodplain environment. The major river systems in the world have supported the development of rich and sophisticated civilization, and many diverse societies have evolved effective systems for deriving benefits from the rich natural productivity of the wetlands ecosystems. Asia still possesses some of our planet's riches natural ecosystem. The rich biodiversity, which those ecosystems support, is of particular international significance. One noteworthy example of great importance to human society is the new form of deepwater rice that has evolved in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basins, containing genes which enable these paddy plants to rise above floodwaters providing food even under severe flooded conditions.
While the importance of wetlands for biodiversity has long provided the driving force for wetland conservation, the people have realized the economic benefits and governments only recently and major investments have been made in this direction. In the early days of the Ramsar Convention, the principal focus was placed upon listing of the sites for the protection of biodiversity, but now there has been an increasing attention given to other provisions such as sustainable utilization and international collaboration for the wise management of wetlands. To conserve objects of outstanding universal value in maintaining natural ecosystems, World Heritage Convention selects the sites from proposals made by the countries in whose territories the sites are situated. The inclusion of sites on the World Heritage list can serve as a powerful argument in securing international support for their conservation and many wetlands have already benefited from their prestige.
2.5 Declaration of ecologically critical areas (ECAs)
Ecologically Critical Area ecologically defined areas or ecosystems affected adversely by the changes brought through human activities. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (BECA). 1995 has provision for Ecologically Critical Area (EGA) declarations by the Director General of the Department of Environment (DOE) in certain cases where ecosystem is considered to be threatened to reach a critical stole. If the government is satisfied that due to degradation of environment, the ecosystem of any area has reached or is threatened to reach a critical state, the government may by notification in the official gazette declare such areas as Ecologically Critical Areas. The government shall specify, through the notification provided in sub-clause (1) or by separate notification, which of the operations or processes cannot be initiated or continued in the Ecologically Critical Area (Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act, 1995) (Ramsar. org., 1999).
2.6 Ecologically critical areas of Bangladesh:
In April 1999, the Director General of the Department of Environment (DOE) officially declared nearly 40,000 ha, within seven separate wetland areas, as ECA's. These sites are Hakaluki Haor, Sonadia Island, ST Martin’s island, and Teknaf Peninsula (Cox's BAZAR Sea Beach) but not their buffer zones. TANGUAR HAOR, Marjat baor (oxbow lake) at Jhenaidah and outside of Sundarbans Reserved Forest at 10 km extent all of which were deemed to meet the 'urgency criterion' required by BECA, i.e., they were "threatened to reach a critical state" (Ramsar. org., 1999).
Although a large number of ecosystems in Bangladesh could accurately be described as "threatened", it would be impossible for the government to declare and manage all of them as ECAs. In order to identify priority sites, a series of biodiversity 'importance criteria' have been taken into account in addition to the above 'urgency criterion'.
2.7 Wetlands legislation and strategies in Bangladesh:
The existing laws in Bangladesh are not specific to the needs and problems of wetlands conservations and management. There are some sectoral laws having bearing on wetlands forests, wildlife, fisheries, management of Jalmahals and other development activities in the wetlands areas.
Bangladesh's environmental policy, including its strategy towards wetland and related issues, has made broad strides during the 1990s (Nishat et ah, 1993). The major elements are outlined below:
Biodiversity Convention (1991): Bangladesh has signed and ratified the Biodiversity Convention.
UNCED Country Report (1991): The report emphasis's the "enormous importance"' of the country's wetland areas, "...both as havens of biodiversity and as major sources of the nations livelihood" (MOEF, 1991).
National Conservation Strategy (NCS, 1991): The NCS provides specific strategies for sustainable development in I8 sectors of the economy.
Environment Policy, 1992: The Environment Policy adopted in 1992 gives due importance to wetlands and related issues. The Policy includes, inter alia, the following aspects: - Rivers, canals, ponds, lakes, haors, beels, baors, and all other water bodied and resources should be kept free from pollution;
- Wetlands should be conserved for the protection of migratory birds.
- Activities which diminish the wetlands/ natural habitats of fish should beprevented and rehabilitative measures encouraged.
- Existing projects on water resources development, flood control and irrigation should be examined to determine their adverse impact on fisheries, and
- Environmental impact assessment (CIA) should be conducted before
undertaking new project for water resources development and management.
National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP, 1995)
The ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) prepared NEMAP based on a comprehensive participator}' planning process ranging from grassroots up to national levels. Local communities, government agencies, non- governmental organizations, professional groups, academics, parliamentarians, lawyers and journalist’s alt provided inputs.
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
In December 1999, the Minister of Water Resources Management announced the Governments intention to develop an ICZM policy. Among other objectives, (lie ICZM policy will attempt to rationale and more effectively co-ordinate a number of environment and development initiatives taking place within the coastal zone.
The Forest Act 1927 (amended in 1989)
The Act prohibits certain acts like clearing, setting fire, trespassing, cattle pasturing, felling of trees, stone quarrying, cultivating land, hunting, shooting, fishing, poisoning water etc in the reserved forests. According to the provisions of this Act any public or private way or watercourse may be stopped for the public in the interest of preservation of the forest.
Rules to Regulate Hunting, Shooting and Fishing within the Controlled and Vested Forests- 1959
These rules prohibit poisoning river or other water and killing fish by explosives within the controlled and vested forests. Rules also prohibit or restrict hinting, shooting and fishing of certain species for a specific period of the year. The rules also prohibit hunting, shooting, strafing and fishing in A category forests to prevent extinction of any species or to form game sanctuaries.
Bangladesh Wild life (Preservation) (Amendment) Act 1974:
This law provides for the preservation, conservation and management or" wildlife in Bangladesh. The acts prohibits hunting, killing and capturing of certain categories of animals designated as protected animals and also prohibits hunting, killing and capturing of certain categories of animals designated as game animals without obtaining a permit from the relevant authority.
East Bengal Protection and Conservation offish Act, 1950 as amended by the Protection and Conservation of Fish (Amendment) Ordinance, 1982; and the Rules made under this Act:
It provides for protection and conservation of fish in the inland waters Bangladesh. The Act prohibits various destructive methods of fishing.
The East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act, 1950:
This law has transferred ownership of wetlands /Jalmahals from the Zamindars to
the government.
The Haor Development Board Ordinance, 1997
Among other thing this law requires the Board:
a) To prepare projects and schemes for development of the haors and other similar low lying and depressed areas;
b) To approve projects and schemes involving not more than twenty-five lakh. c) Taka each and to submit other projects and schemes costing more than twenty-five lakh taka to the government for approval;
d) To execute approved projects and schemes; and
e) To supervise execution of projects and schemes.
Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act 1995 and Environment Conservation Rules 1997:
The Bangladesh Environmental Conservation Act of 1995 was promulgated for environmental conservation, improvement of environmental quality, control and mitigation of environmental pollution in the country.
The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Rules 1997 is another step taken by the Government lo supports the conservation of bio-diversity.
2.8 International collaboration:
Recognizing the environmental, social and economic consequences of wetland loss, Bangladesh has initiated some national action programmed to address the conservation.
2.8.1 Ramsar convention
Ramsar Convention, named after the town of Ramsar, Iran, where it was adopted in 1971 has specific objectives of conserving wetlands of international importance especially as waterfowl habitat. In October 1992 there were 70 contracting parties to the convention. In joining it the countries are required to designate suitable wetlands within their territories for inclusion in a special list. Bangladesh designated 59,500 ha of Sundarbans when it become signatory to the convention in May 1992 .The principal focus of the convention is upon listing of the sites (UNCED, 1992).
This has now been extended to formulation and implementation of plans to promote the wise the use of wetlands .At the third meeting of the contracting parties in Regina, Canada, in definition of the wise use of wetlands was adopted as follows:
"The wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilization for the benefit of human kind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of ecosystem"
Natural properties of the ecosystem are defined as:
'Those physical biological or chemical components such as soil water plants, animas and nutrients, and the interactions between them"
Successive conference have encourage cooperation between contracting parties on the management of shared wetlands and their resources providing opportunities for exchange of information and transfer of technology and urged for development assistance policies to be pursued in support of wetlands conservation.
2.8.2 World heritage convention
The World Heritage Convention serves to conserve objects of' "outstanding universal value" that are part of the natural and cultural heritage of the world. Its value in maintaining natural ecosystems is therefore very specific and limited. In addition, in contrast to the Ramsar Convention, sites cannot be designated unilaterally by the contraction parties but are selected by the World Heritage Committee from proposals made by the parties in whose territories the sites are situated (Biber-Klemm, 1991). However, the inclusion of sited on the World Heritage list can serve, as a powerful argument in securing international support for their conservation and management needs, and many wetlands have already benefited from these prestige.
2.8.3 Bonn convention
Recommendation 32 of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, asked governments to undertake actions to protect by international legislation migratory species that cross international boundaries. Work towards such legislation was undertaken by the Federal Republic of Germany in close consultation with the IUCN Environmental Law Centre, and was concluded in 1979 with the signing of the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals or the "Bonn Convention" (Boere, 1991).
The Convention is a basic nature conservation convention aiming to conserve wild animals, including birds, regardless of the origin and nature of the threats they are facing.
2.8.4 Biological diversity convention
The Biological Convention signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, in June 1992 by over 150 governments provides a framework to enable the government to decide how best their biodiversity can be conserved. Government agreed that it is vital to address the caused of biodiversity loss and to maintain the ecosystems and habitats through in situ conservation (UNCED, 1992).
In the Convention, governments affirm that they have sovereign rights over their own biological resources, but are responsible for conserving biodiversity and for using their biological resources in a sustainable manner.
Further, the Convention recognizes the traditional dependence of many indigenous and local communities on biological resources, and the desirability of enabling local communities to share equitably in the benefits arising from the use of indigenous knowledge.
Finally, the Convention recognizes that more money is needed to conserve biodiversity, and that increased investment will bring considerable environmental, economic and social benefits at local, national and global levels.
2.9 Ramsar criterion on Hakaluki Haor
Hakaluki Haor is a highly significant site for a wide variety of waterfowl, particularly Anatidae. Its overall significance is perhaps best expressed with refers to the various criteria for inclusion as a Ramsar site. In a comprehensive 1995 survey, Hakaluki Haor was deemed to fulfill the following five Ramsar criteria (Halis, 1996).
"It is a particularly good representative example of a wetland which plays a substantial hydrological, biological or ecological role in the natural functioning of major river basin"(Ramsar Criterion 1 .c).
"It supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered species of plant or animals, or an appreciable number of individuals of any one or mere of these species."(Ramsar Criterion 2.a).
"It is of specials value for maintaining the genetic and ecological diversity of a region because of the peculiarities of its flora and fauna.”(Ramsar Criterion 2, b).
"It regularly supports 20,000 waterfowl."(Ramsar Criterion 3.a).
"It regularly supports substantial number of individuals from particular group of waterfowl, indicative of wetland values, productivity or diversity (Great Cormorant, Tufted Duck)" (Ramsar Criterion 3.b).
More recent observers have pointed to a sixth criterion met by the site, i.e., "It regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species or subspecies (UNDP, 1994).
2.10 Management and regulations of wetlands (Nishat et al., 1993):
2.10. 1. Historical aspect
From colonial times lands and other resource in the country were mostly under private ownership perpetually granted by the British under the Permanent Settlement Regulations, 1793, these estates, or Mahals as they were called, comprised almost every kind of resources available on a specific fiscal-geographic areas. Often, the Jalmahals, especially the closed fisheries, were made part of such estate .The legal history of the marshy tracts, haors or baors, which can be termed as wetlands, hence formed an almost integral part of the land tenure history. The land and all resource on or attached to land were subjects of settlement to private parties. As a result when East Bengal becomes the eastern province of Pakistan in 1947, 91 percent of the land was under permanent settlement and only 5.5 percent under "public property" status or khas mahal. The wetlands which formed part of the zamindars estate were within the "sub-tenancy making power of the landlords" which could be either an absolute occupancy right or usufructuary right.
2.10.2 Abolition of Zamindari
The Zamindari system was abolished and all rent receiving interests were acquired by the under the State Acquisition and Tenancy (SAT) act of 1950. The lawful settlers under the Zamindari were made owners or tenants under the state The terms tenant is used incase of non agricultural land governed by the Non-Agricultural a Tenancy Act, 1947).
The Land Management Manual of 1991 Provides elaborate guideline for managing 10,108 public Jalmahals vested with the Ministry of Land .The manual enumerates the following management rules:
a) The fisheries measuring up to 20 acres are entrusted with the Thana
administration.
b) The fisheries managed by the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock would be available and accessible to the scientists and researchers of the Department of Fisheries for investigation and environment information collection.
c) The fisheries not being more than three acres in size would be preserved by the Union Parishad so that people can exercise their customary right of using the waters for domestic and other purpose. These fisheries would not be leased to any one.
d) All other fisheries covering an area larger than 20 acres would be granted to ijaradars through open auction.
2.10.3. Institutional and policy conflicts
It is clear wetlands under the management of various sectoral public institutions are being treated as something other than wetlands. Each sector maintains its compartmentalized priorities irrespective of adverse impact on other sectors. The mono institutional approach has reduced the potentials of wetlands. The question is what are the policies relevant to wetlands in Bangladesh? Since there is nothing called wetlands in the law of the land but being regulated under various legal statuses, it is essential to study those sectoral policies or guidelines on fisheries, agriculture water resource development, etc.
It is essential to identify the policies and legislative or regulatory issues that are responsible for destruction or act as hindrances to wetlands conservation or sustainable use. Unless the issues are identified, it would be difficult to purpose practicable recommendations.
2.11 Occupation and social identity of the HHs:
As illustrated in Table 1, the primary occupation of households living around Hakaluki haor is agriculture, closely followed by fishing. Just under half of the populations are engaged in other activities, many of them wetland-based, including manual laborers, boatmen, small traders and remittances from abroad.
Table2.2: Distribution of population by upazila and main occupation of head of the household in Hakaluki haor:
Upazila
Main Occupation
Barleka
Fenchugnj
Golapgnj
Juri
Kulara
Total
Agriculture
27.8%
38.0%
26.0%
37.9%
51.3%
37.9%
Fishing
27.5%
30.8%
32.7%
14.1%
19.2%
23.3%
Labor
22.4%
6.2%
6.1%
13.4%
6.2%
11.4%
Boatman
0.2%
0.1%
1.2%
0.4%
0.1%
0.3%
Small trading
6.5%
7.0%
7.1%
11.3%
5.0%
7.3%
Remittance
8.7%
7.2%
17.5%
8.7%
11.1%
10.3%
Others
6.9%
10.7%
9.4%
14.1%
7.1%
9.4%
Total
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
99.90%
100.00%
99.90%
Source: CNRS, 2004.
2.12 Problems of biodiversity of Hakaluki Haor:
2.12.1 Causes and Reasons of problem
The Sylhet region is highly rich in wetlands among other regions of Bangladesh. The wetland of Hakaluki Haor, which is one of the biggest wetlands in South Asia, is situated in Sylhet, and the Ramsar site Tanguar Haor, but these haor are now in threatened condition due to destructive activities, mismanagement & lack of awareness, local people killing migratory birds & unsustainable use of wetland (Jewel, 2005).
Hakaluki Haor in the northeast of Bangladesh is one of the countries largest and most important inland freshwater wetlands. However, it is fast becoming a degraded ecosystem unable to effectively perform the vital functions and services it once used to. Fish slocks are dropping, water quality is deteriorating, birds are no longer as abundant as they used to be, mammals such as foxes and fishing cats are now a rarity, endemic plant species (many of which are crucial for the livelihoods of local communities both in terms of their properties to nourish and heal) arc becoming hard to find, and swamp forests and reed swamps have all but disappeared. In addition, the Haor is becoming less deep as a result of deforestation, sedimentation, drainage, and river diversion for irrigation. This degradation and ultimate loss of biodiversity is caused by a number of factors, many of which are economic in nature such as the conversion of swamp forest for agriculture, unsustainable fishing practices, fuel wood collection, bird hunting, overgrazing, and over-harvesting of wetland resources.
Problems and causes of problems of biodiversity of Hakaluki Haor arc discus on the below:
2.12.1.1 Problems of Biodiversity: Fishery
- Decline in fish production
-Some species are already extinct
-Some species are going to be extinct.
-Decline of fish feed
-Decline in shelter/lack of trees/ bush
-Intermediaries are reaping the benefit. Genuine fishermen are reduced to fish Laborers
-Over harvest of haor water for HYV agriculture
Causes/Reasons of the problems:
- Over-exploitation of fisheries resources
-Use of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides in the upland tea gardens
-Waste from the Fenchugonj fertilizers factory dumped into the water system
-Waste from the paper mill in Assam dumped into the water system
-Use of current nets/ cloth nets for catching fish/fingerlings
-Fishery communities are not organized.
2.12.1.2 Problems of Biodiversity: Birds
- Decline in migratory and local birds
-Loss of habitat/food/ shelter
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems:
-Loss of food including different varieties of small fishes, snails, mussels, oysters, etc.
-Hunting of birds
-Use of firearms
-Use of light
-More human settlement in previous adjacent areas
2.12.1.3 Problems of Biodiversity: Animal Diversity
-Domestic animals such as cows, cattle, buffaloes, goats arc depleting grazing grounds
- More and more lands arc being brought under HYV agriculture
-Decline in bathans
-Vaccination and treatment services are inadequate. As the haor area is remote, service accessibility is a major problem.
-Wild animals are being depleted with destruction Of forest.
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems
-Reduced availability of fodder
2.12.1.4 Problems of Biodiversity: Plant Diversity
-Decline of trees /depletion of forest resources
-Population explosion
-Hijol / Barun trees arc gone, Loss offish shelter/ breeding ground
-Long standing water
-Loss of herbal trees
-Aquatic plants are gone
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems:
-Use of timber in furniture making, burning bricks
-Conversion of forest land into agriculture
-Reduced dependence of consumers/ patients on herbal medicines / -kabirajee medicine
2.12.1.5 Problems of Biodiversity: Agriculture
- Local varieties of rice are disappearing
- Land productivity/fertility is reduced
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems
-Attraction for HYV agriculture
-Use of chemicals and pesticides in HYV agriculture
-Loss of biomass/organic fertilizer with the depletion of trees
-Siltation
-Reduce availability of water
-Water logging
2.12.1.6 Problem: Water resource
-Pollution of water
-Reduced aquatic productivity
-Depletion of aquatic plants
-Depletion of aquatic animals/ shamuk /jinuk /snails
۞ Causes/ reasons of the problems:
- Sand coming across the border resulted in siltation
- Waste from factories dumped in to the river/water system
2.12.2 Threatened phenomena of Hakaluki Haor:
These include the following specific threats:
- Loss of Redland and swamp forest areas due to conversion for agriculture;
- Reduction in surface area and depth of mother fisheries and other aquatic habitats (beels). Due to sedimentation, drainage and river diversion for irrigation;
- Degradation of reed land and grassland habitats due to overgrazing within the haor, and;
- Minor risk of degradation of aquatic habitat due to agro-chemical pollution from tea estates.
The following threats related to over-harvesting of resources have been identified: o -Loss of reproductive capacity of fishery due to inappropriate fishing practices;
-Loss of genetic diversity due to increasingly intensive tillage of high-yield varieties (HYV) of rice;
-Unsustainable levels of fuel wood collection;
-Over-harvesting of amphibians, including turtles and frogs; and « Reduced bird populations due to hunting.
2.12.3 Causes of biodiversity loss at the Hakaluki Haor:
The following have been identified as key causes of biodiversity loss at the Hakaluki Haor site:
1. No legally instituted protection measures for ecologically critical areas
2. No effective management authority at field-level
3 Limited participation by local communities in resource use decision-making
4. Inadequate information on status and functioning of critical ecosystems
5. No integrated management planning for ecologically critical areas
6. Limited opportunities for alternative sustainable livelihoods
7. Lack of alternative sources of fuel wood and fodder
8. Limited public awareness of environmental issues
9. Lack of technical knowledge, capacities
10. Poor enforcement of fisheries and wildlife protection acts.
CHAPTER: 3 (THREE)
Background of the Study Area:
3.1 Location and significance:
Hakaluki haor is a complex ecosystem, containing more than 238 interconnecting bee/s /Jalmahals (CWBMP 2005). The most important beels are Chatla, Pinlarkona, Dulla, Sakua, Barajalla, Pioula, Balijhuri, Lamba, Tekonia, Haorkhal, Tural, Baghalkuri and Chinaura. The total area of the haor is approximately 18,000 ha, including the area which is completely inundated during monsoon. Of this total area, beels (permanent wetlands) cover an area of 4,635 ha. This 18,000 ha area represents area demarcated as EGA declared by the Government of Bangladesh for Hakaluki haor.
Hakaluki haor lies between latitude 24° 35' N to 24° 45' N and longitude 92° 00' E to 92° 08' E. It is bounded by the Kushiara River as well as a part of the Sonai-Bardal River to the north, by the Fenchuganj-Kulaura Railway to the west as well as to the south, and by the Kulaura-Beanibazar Road to the east. Hakaluki haor falls under the two administrative districts (Moulobibazar and Sylhet) and five upazilas (Barlekha, Kulaura, Fenchuganj, Golapganj and Juri).
Some 190,000 people live in the area surrounding Hakaluki haor. The two main sources of livelihood for these people are fisheries and agriculture. Depending on how water levels are controlled, tensions arise between the areas available for fish versus the area befitting for agricultural production. An important task facing wetland managers is thus to find equitable ways to achieve the balance between these sometimes competing forms of production.
Map 3.1: Map of Hakaluki Haor
3.2 Agricultural production
There are three major rice crops in Bangladesh: Aus, Aman and Boro. Of them, Boro is the main form of production in the haor area, while Aus and transplanted Aman are almost universally found on highland and medium highland floodplain ridge soils. Aus are widely transplanted in this wet region; elsewhere, sprouted seeds are sown on wet puddle soils. Most such land remains fallow in the rainy- season. With irrigation, HYV Boro is followed by rain fed transplanted Aman .
On lower land, mixed Aus and Aman or deepwater Aman are the traditional practices on basin margins, with local Boro paddy or grass land (used for dry season cattle grazing) in basin sites.
With LLP irrigation, the area under Boro paddy mainly early maturing local varieties has greatly expanded in the past 30 years, thus considerably reducing the area formerly under grassland and reed swamp. Rabi crops such as vegetable, spices, sweet potato, potato, pulses and mustard are mainly grown on loamy-bank soils.
3.3 Natural resources Fisheries
Haors and Floodplains in Bangladesh are important sources of fisheries resources for the country. Kalibaus, Boat, Rui, Ghagot, Pabda and Chapila are the main fish species of the Haor. From the Kushiyara there are frequent upstream movements of fish towards the beels and tributaries of Hakaluki.
Beels in Hakaluki haor are important for fisheries. They provide the winter shelter for the mother fisheries, and in early monsoon these mother fisheries produce millions of fries for the entire downstream fishing communities. Consequently, protection of these fisheries not only benefits local people, but also all the people in the lower floodplains. Floodplains are also an important source of fisheries resources within the EGA.
At the same time it important to note that each of these beels also provide a natural habitat for different species of fishes. However, many of the beels have lost their capacity to provide shelter as mother fisheries, and hence are subjected to severe degradation due to- a) Sand deposits from upstream rivers and canals,
b) Using complete dewatering technique for fishing activities and
c) Absence of aquatic plants to provide feed and shelter for parent fish. Chatla beel has come under threat of sedimentation from the Juri River. To counteract this threat, an embankment was constructed to deflect river sediments away from the beel.
Most of these beels are leased out by the Government of Bangladesh for fishing activities for at least a period of three years, with provision for renewals. Each beel has a surrounding land area known as kanda where reeds and swamp forests used to exist in the past. Over time, human pressure, encroachment and also land allocations by the government to the landless has reduced the reed and the swamp forest area which provided shelter and feed for fish during the monsoon.
There are claims that under the current practice of land leasing, Hakaluki haor are in danger of losing nearly 32 fish species out of 107 because of over fishing by the lessee. This is a serious threat to fish stocks in the haor.
3.4 Waterfowl
Hakaluki haor is a very important resting place for migratory waterfowls flying in from the north. The most interesting species is the Barheaded Goose, which is now very rare in fresh water wetlands. Other important species include Adjutant Stork, Bear's Pochard, Falcated Teal, Broadbill Sandpiper, Spotted Redshank, Nordmann's Greenshank, Temmiinck's Stint, Steppe Eagle and Osprey. In a survey conducted under FAR 6 in 1994, 64,000 waterfowl were counted in Haorkhal and 15,000 waterfowl were counted in Chatla beel. Illegal poaching has been a threat to the waterfowl population.
3.5 Vegetation:
Ecological characteristics, particularly vegetation patterns, differ sharply between the permanent and seasonal water bodies in Hakaluki haor. Within the permanent water bodies, vegetation is less dense in the monsoon than in winter, since the vegetation becomes submerged and does not thrive without light. However, the aquatic vegetation that exists begins germinating with the onslaught of the monsoon floods. Aquatic vegetation occurs mainly in the shallower parts of the Haor. Other than the shorelines (kanda), most of the open water areas are weed-free.
3.6 Livestock
Hakaluki haor is known as good grazing land. People from villages around the haor and also from distant areas send their herds for grazing in winter. During this time, herders make permanent shelters near the beels and graze their animals for a period of 4-5 months. During monsoon, many keep their herds in-house or send them to nearby hills for grazing.(CWBMP Final draft, 2004)
3.7 Forests
Hakaluki haor contained a very dense swamp forest in the past, but deforestation and the lack of conservation practices have virtually destroyed this unique forest in the last two decades. Two small patches of swamp forest remain in the Hakaluki haor. One is in Chatla beel another is near the village of Kalikrishnapur. The plants which are common in this type of forest are also found in homestead groves. With the exception of these two swamp forest patches, the vegetation surrounding Hakaluki haor is unique since it includes both swamp forest as well as mixed evergreen rain forest.(CNRS, 2004)
Thatching material is the most useful natural wetland product of the area. The people in the vicinity use this material in various ways: for example as roofing, wall or wall panel material for their houses and for making mats. The utilization of wetland products is now less intensive, because in recent years the vegetation has decreased considerably.
Another important use of the resources from this wetland is for fuel wood. Due to the scarcity of fuel wood around homesteads, the people are becoming increasingly dependent on this source of fuel. Swamp forest trees, except for hijol, are the most popular fuel wood in these areas. However, all woody shrubs including grasses are also used for this purpose. The naturally regenerating saplings in the swamp forests are being harvested at a non-sustainable rate because of the scarcity of fuel.
Wetlands products are also used as bio-fertilizer or green manure. All the small herbs and grasses grown in the Haor are used as green manure. Farmers living around the Haor use these materials instead of chemical fertilizer. The soft aquatic plants are gathered immediately after the monsoon and placed in piles in the fields, to allow them to decompose.
There are many aquatic plants which are grown in the Haor area, and are used as food, medicinal plants, duck feed, or for fuel. These common property resources are of considerable importance to the poor.
3.8 Wetland goods, services and economic values
The haor system provides a wide range of economic and non-economic benefits to the local people as well as to the people of Bangladesh and the world at large. These include benefits in terms of fish production, rice production, cattle and buffalo rearing, duck rearing, collection of reeds and grasses, and collection of aquatic and other plants. The haor system also protects the lower floodplains from flash floods occurring in the months of April-May, recharges the water tables, maintains the supply of fish in other lower riparian water bodies, provides habitat for migratory and local waterfowl, and generates important carbon sequestration services. At the same time, the unique haor system is a natural beauty both during the monsoon months and the dry season. In monsoon, its unique physical characteristics make it a huge natural bowl of water and in the dry season it is natural grassland with a horizon nearly 35 km wide, with pockets of beels serving as the resting place for migratory birds. Such a unique natural system, if appropriately marketed, could be a major attraction for tourists. However, as of today, there is little evidence of this.
The property rights regime of the haor is complex. Most of the agricultural lands in the haor basin are private land. While the majority of the water bodies are owned by the government and are generally leased out for fishing activities, smaller water bodies are sometimes owned by local villages or by a few families. The banks of the water bodies, which were once tracts of swamp forests, are public land.
The cycle of economic activities in the haor region also varies significantly with changes in the seasons. During the monsoon months, most of the land is under water and so fishing is the major economic activity. However, during this time leaseholders have no control over fish, because they are spread over a large area and people are able to catch them freely.
During the dry season, a large number of activities take place.. Agricultural land under private ownership is often put under Boro rice production. The banks of the wetland provide grazing grounds, and herds of cattle and buffaloes are brought in. Water bodies are more organized and defined, and leaseholders take full control of their fish harvests. Local people collect building materials such as reeds for fences, various plants and fuel wood for personal and commercial use, and sometimes are engaged in hunting and poaching of migratory birds.
CHAPTER: 4 (FOUR)
Methodology:
4.1 Study Site:
Hakaluki Haor is administrated under five Upazilas i.e., Kulaura, Borolekha, Fenchugong, Juri and Golapgong. My study was conducted at Chata beel and Jolla beel of Hakaluki Haor, situated respectively under Kulaura, & Barolekha Thana, Jaifarnagor & Talimpur Union. In here, Chatla beel is situated under the Zafarnagar union, and Juri Thana, adjacent respective villages are Sonapur, Vela Gau, Bachirpur, Kandi gau, Chalbon etc. Total area of Chatla beel is 302.9630 ha (CWBMP, 2005). The physical status of Chatla beel is moderately degraded. Ownership criteria are khas. (Community agrees with Govt. list). My study was conducted on Sonapur, Vela Gau. Village was selected on the basis of distance from the beel. On the other hand, Jallar beel is situated under Talimpur union and Barlekha Thana and adjacent respective villages are Sreerampur, Ranginagar, Molajuri, Dasghori etc. Total area of the Jolla beel is 181.3670 ha. (CWBMP, 2005). Physical status of Jolla beel is moderately Rich But, my study was conducted on Sreerampur and Molajuri on the basis of distance from the beel. In here also, ownership criteria are khas (Community agree with Govt. list).
4.2 Study Period: The study period spans over a three (3) months period time starts from February, 2007 to April, 2007.
4.3 Sample Technique:
A simple random method was applied to gather information on community based haor resource management and dependency pattern of local peoples on Hakaluki Haor. Standard methods have been used for baseline data collection on socio-economic, vegetation, fish and land use pattern etc.
4.4 Field Method:
To determine the nature of dependence of the people on the haor resources and to estimate the used value of haor resources, household level survey of 84, randomly chosen households were conducted between March-April 2007. A modular questionnaire was developed to elicit information from these households.
To value the productivity value of the Hakaluki haor, a structured questionnaire was used with the following modules:
4.4.1 General Information:
This included general information about the households such as total number of family members, number of earning members, education, religion, occupation, food habit, sanitation, drinking water, energy source, involvement with micro-credit system etc. This part was designed to find out the socio-economic condition of the population living around the haor area.
4.4.2 Agricultural Activities:
This part includes questions on agriculture, land ownership, expenditure and income from agricultural production, types of crops grown in the haor area, irrigation etc. It was designed to investigate agricultural production functions and income generation from agro-products in the haor area.
4.4.3. Fisheries:
This part was designed to collect data on fish diversity of the study area; existing fish catch system, fishing expenditure, production cost and earnings from fishing.
4.4.4. Access and Rights to Collect Haor Resources:
The questions of this section concerned rights of the inhabitants to haor resources, obstacles and hindrance they face during resource collection, labor market, partnership and economic activities based on haor resources.
4.4.5. Livelihood, Haor Resources and Other Non-use Value:
This segment of the questionnaire consisted of questions on livelihood aspects such as full time/part time fishing, fish cultivation, livestock, collection of wetland plants and other resources.
4.5. Data Analysis:
All data were collected using field diary and data sheet. All the quantitative data were incorporated in MS Excell data sheet for further analysis.
4.6. Limitations of the Study:
Limitations which arose during the study are given below:
1. Budget constraint: No financial support was available for the accomplishment of the study.
2. Time constraint: For in-depth study on regeneration status needs a prolonged period, but the present study spans for only six (6) months.
3. Unavailability on secondary data: Till today there has not been any study or survey on the overall status or management of the swamp forest that can be compared with the present study findings.
CHAPTER: 5 (FIVE)
Results and Discussion
5.1 Habitat category and land use pattern in Hakaluki Haor:
Habitat categories of Hakaluki Haor are beel, river or canals, fallow land, boro crops land and rabi crops land. The beels are found to use for Fishing, bird hunting, aquatic vegetation collection for food, fodder, fuel while River or canals for fishing, boating, and transportation. Fallow land is use for Grazing, vegetation, grass and fuel collection, etc. boro crop land use in winter rice cultivation at the seasonal parts of beels and haor edges. Rabi crop land use for oil seeds and pulses cultivation at the higher elevated land along the edges of the haor.
Table (5.1): Habitat category and land use of the Hakaluki Haor in winter and monsoon seasons:
Habitat
Category
(Land cover)
Area covered
Land use
(winter months)
(Acre)
%
Beel
12364.13
26.95
Fishing, bird hunting, aquatic vegetation collection for food, fodder, fuel.
River/canals
1532.56
3,34
Fishing, boating, transportation
Kandi/ fallow land
7185.41
15.66
Grazing, vegetation, fallow, grass and fuel collection, etc.
Boro crop
16151.42
35.21
Winter rice cultivation at the seasonal parts of beels and haor edges.
Rabi crop
8637.78
18.83
Oil seeds and pulses cultivation at the higher elevated land along the edges of the haor.
Total
45871.72
100.00
In monsoon, the whole haor is inundated and become a single sheet of water, fishing and boating is the major use.
Sourse: CNRS-2000.
As can be seen from the Table (5.1), 16151.42 acres of land used for boro rice cultivation covering over 35% of the total haor basin. Most part of almost every beels in the haor used for boro rice cultivation. However, these lands go under water in the monsoon and use as fisheries habitats and fishing is the major land use in the monsoon season. Rabi crop comprising of oil seeds and pulses are also grown in the haor basin but at the higher elevated lands along edges of the haor basin. Rabe land covers an area of 8638 acres (about 19% of the total haor basin).
Photograph 5.1: Agriculture in Hakaiuki Haor.
During monsoon season, total area (45000 acres), which were under different land uses in the winter season get inundated by river flooding and rain waters. The whole haor become a single sheet of water and look like a vast inland sea. During monsoon season, fishing and boat navigation therefore, is the only use of the haor. Thousands of families subsist on fishing in the flooded haor for their livelihood during monsoon season.
Apart from rice and oil seeds, different types of vegetables are also produced. There are suitable areas in the haor basin for winter vegetables cultivation but lack of irrigation facilities has been considered as constraints for expanding the vegetables cultivation practices. Water decreases in winter and suddenly increases during the April-May (Boishakh). It is learned that different types of hybrid vegetables are cultivated along with indigenous varieties.
5.2 Occupation of Household Head in the study Area:
As it is seen from the following graph, more than one third of the peoples were involved in agriculture (37%), followed by fishing (22)% and day labor (11)% respectively. In the following figure 5.1, details information was given:
(Figure 5.1): Occupation of Household Head
5.3 Distribution of Monthly Family Income:
As illustrated in Figure 5.2, there is variation in average monthly income between households. Approximately half of the populations earn between 1,500 and 5,000 BDT, and half above 5,000 BDT a month. In here, total population are divided into five (5) categories like very poor whose monthly income about less than 1500 BDT, poor whose monthly income varies from 1500-3000 BDT, lower middle whose monthly income varies from 3000-5000BDT, middle whose monthly income varies from 5000-7000 BDT and last one is rich whose monthly income above 7000 BDT. In below the following Figure, details data was given here-
(Figure 5.2): Distribution of Monthly Family Income
5.4 Average Income of the Households (Annul):
However, it was also clear during our reconnaissance survey that the majority of the people living in the haor basin are absentee landlords, and that most of the land are used only for one crop. This means that land is not tilled as intensively as in other regions, a positive sign for the environment. Consequently, the questionnaire included questions regarding the source of income.
Figure 5.3 shows that a large majority of local residents receive their income from crops (reflecting a dependency on haor land for rice cultivation), the next important source of income is river or water bodies and the third important source of income is remittance received from abroad.
Average income from crop selling (agriculture) was BDT 20,793 and 59.52% of the respondents earned this amount. The second main source of income is share cropping and annual income was BDT 13,419. Remittance from the expatriate Bangladeshis is the fourth source of income for 18%.
(Figure 5.3): Average Income of the Households (Annul)
5.5 Households Involvement with various local organizations related to Haor mgt:
In terms of membership of organizations only (33%) of the households were found to be involved directly with CNRS of which (83%) was male and (17%) was female, Cooperative (35 %), Farmer Cooperative (9.80%), Women Cooperative (10%) and so on as the following shows on Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4: HHs involvement with various haor related organization:
5.6 Quality of life:
Quality of life is an important element of decision making in conservation efforts. Types of toilet used, source of electricity and source of fuel are considered good proxy variables for quality of life.
In terms of toilet facilities 54% of the households use ring slab, 26% uses sanitary latrine while regarding source of lighting, only 32% used electricity (or had access to electricity) and the large majority used kerosene. Considering the source of water, 95% uses tube-wells and another 70% uses ponds and rivers.
5.7 Source of Collection of Fuel in Haor Areas:
Regarding source of fuel for cooking, data shows that timber residue and cow-dung were the two major sources of fuel for cooking purposes. Over a quarter of respondent’s state that they collect these fuel sources from the haor. 27% fuel was collected from
Photograph: 5.2-(a) A local people brought a Hijal log from the haor area, 5.2(b) Local people brought Gagra as shoulder loads for domestic cooking.
the Haor, 25% fuel was collected from the village, 18% fuel was collected from their own garden, 9 % fuel was collected from the market and so on as shows on Figure 5.5:
(Figure 5.5): Fuel source in the locality
5.8 Ownership of Properties:
Nearly all respondents own their houses in the Hakaluki haor area. This reinforces the observations above that people in the Hakaluki haor basin are comparatively well-off in terms of property ownership, compared to other parts of Bangladesh. Figure 5.6, in here given percentage of owned properties-
(Figure 5.6): Ownership of Properties:
5.9 Dependence of Households on Haor Resources:
The property rights regime in the haor has several dimensions. First, agricultural land is privately owned and operated; second, the leased out beels are also private property for the period of lease while government regulates operations through its district administration; and third, the kanda land is government land with no private claims on it. These lands are the rural commons where grazing activities, collection of reeds, duck rearing activities take place. Various departments of the Government of Bangladesh including the Ministry of Environment and Forests have claims on this land or on part of
Photograph: 5.3(a) A grazing field in the locality during winter, 5.3(b) Duck rearing: one of the major income generating opportunities in the area.
this land. To implement a management strategy for the haor resources, it is important to understand the connectivity of people with this land.
5.10 People who collect haor resources from the commons and the private lands:
About two thirds of the households living in the region regularly visit the haor in order to collect wetland resources. However, they face the threats from private operators. Our survey reveals that 46% of them face such obstructions during collection of resources. 90% of them said that the barriers come while fishing in the beels (whereas big beels are leased out there are many small beels inside the haors which are part of the rural commons but the leaseholders often encroach into their rights as common people do not have legal papers to defend their access to these commons); (29%) have reported resistance during bird hunting (which shows that government campaigns to protect birds in the haors have found its footage); (19)% faced hindrance during fuel wood collection and (14%) faced difficulties while grazing herds in the commons.
In terms of whom the players are in creating such obstacles, As can seen from the table 5.2, nearly 75% of the people found the obstacles coming from the lease-holders, government & NGO’s officials were next in the line, (43%) and then the land owners (42%) Local influential people, interestingly, do not violate the rights of the common people on the beels/haor resources.
Table 5.2: Restriction on Haor resources utilization and access imposed by several bodies:-
Category label
Observations
Percent
Government & NGO’s Officers
In directly (Information collected from local peoples)
42.92
Lessee Holders
63
75.00
Influential locals
14
16.67
Lands owners
35
41.67
Others
5
5.95
5.11 Local peoples fishing rights on the Beels:
Figure 5.7 shows that only (10%) of beel lease holders and cooperatives have legal fishing rights. Nearly (50%) of the beels are 'open access' resources, 22% are under private ownership, and in (1%) of beels villagers have common rights, and in some beels rights are not well defined (0.5%).
This provides a picture of the potential for conflicts if there is an initiative to unify or to redefine their rights without appropriate consultation or participation and without amending legal regimes in the haor area.
(Figure 5.7): fishing rights on the Beels by local Peoples
Photograph 5.4: Three fishermen returning after fishing operation from the haor
5.12 Economic Activities in the Haor:
Other than fishing and rice cultivation, there are various economic activities from which people benefit. Figure 5.8 illustrating that fishing and fish related activities were the major source of livelihood for the people. Nearly 83% of people were involved in activities related to fish production from the haor. Cattle grazing and duck rearing were also very common in the haor and nearly 97% and 87% of the people were involved in it respectively. Fuel wood collection is also an important economic activity while poaching of birds was also crucial for nearly 16% of the people. About 9% people were involved in sand extraction while about 6% were engaged in reed collection.
(Figure 5.8): Economic Activities in the Haor
5.13 Initiators of Income Generating Activities in the Haor:
Initiators are so much important because without them, it is not possible to mange the whole activities were happened in the Haor areas. As can be seen from the Table 5.3, private individuals are the main initiators of economic activities. Around 9 % of the jobs were initiated by the Lessee of the beels. Similarly, local Member of the Parliament, or members of the elected local government institutions are responsible for nearly 36% of the economic activities.
Table 5.3: Initiators of Income Generating Activities in the Haor
Category Label
Observations
Percent
Local MP
(Information collected from Local peoples)
2.87
Lessee
82
9.80
Private Individuals
110
84.47
Influential people
21
2.51
Chairman/members of LGI
3
0.36
Total
240
100
5.14 Income Generation from various livelihood Activities:
As can be seen from the table, household income generated from various economic activities. Table 5.4(A) shows that average income from capture fisheries were over 16,980 BDT per household, and that nearly half of households are engaged in this. However, culture fishing was also a growing industry in the area, providing an average income of 13,440 Taka for participating households shown in the Table 5.4(B). Just under half of the populations were engaged in collecting other wetland products for their residential use, and about 6% in direct income-generation from haor resources.
Annual Income of Households from Haor related Economic Activities are divided into the following type:
Table 5.4(A). Aquatic resources:
Aquatic resources
Number
Percent
Annual Income
Full time fishing
50
59.52
36,911.00
Part time fishing
45
53.57
25,066.00
Fishing for self consumption
60
71.45
2,807.700
Fish drying
10
11.90
666.00
Net weaving
15
17.86
2000.00
Others
7
8.33
10,428.00
Table 5.4(B). Fish culture & Fish Trading:
Items
Number
Percent
Annual Income (TK)
Release/transport fries
2
2.38
2,250.00
Provide food and fertilizer in fish cultivation pond
1
0.12
5,000.00
Selling of cultivated fish
4
4.76
15,977.00
Fish trading
12
14.29
31,826.00
Poultry farming (snail/Jhinuk)
2
2.38
1,400.00
All Aquatic resources (fisheries fish trading
+poultry farming)
45
53.57
21,463.00
5.15 Average Income from non-aquatic resources:
In here, food for human means that aquatic fruits those were used as food like Singgara, Bat, and Halu etc. Mainly children were engaged to collect such types of food materials. Those are delicious. Sometimes, aquatic fruits were sold by them in the market and create scope for earning source. Table shows that average income from such types of fruits materials was 4.78%. Cattle feeding were the main issues in there, providing an average income was 3,430 TK. (35.71%). Secondly, fuel wood was about 2,620 TK (20.24%). And so on.
Table 5.4(C). Average Income from non-aquatic resources:
Items
Observation
Percent
Average Annual Income (TK)
Food for human
4
4.76
3,480.00
Feed for cattle
30
35.71
3,430.00
Roofing materials
2
2.38
1,085.00
Fencing materials
6
7.14
888.00
Fuel
17
20.24
2,620.00
Others
1
1.19
2,425.00
D. Annual income from other income generating activities:
In here, Vegetables cultivation was the main source which is about to 27.38%, second income source was small business which was related to the Haor activities, is around to 12 %. Handicrafts and cane made materials also a source of income but very small percentage.
Table5.4 (D): Annual income from other income generating activities:
Other Activities
Observation
Percent
Annual average income (TK)
Small business
10
11.90
26,300.00
Handicrafts
3
3.57
7,600.00
cane made materials
3
3.57
5,833.00
vegetable cultivation
23
27.38
2,613.00
Others
3
3.57
1,666.00
5.16 Resources collection by poor peoples from Hakaluki Haor:
The local people reported that 10-15 years back there were abundance of aquatic vegetation in the Hakaluki Haor area. Indiscriminate harvestion of the haor vegetation i.e. the grasses, herbs, shrubs and swamp trees (Hijol, barun, karoch. etc.) has caused elimination of vast area of plants. Once there in the deep haor was Hijol forest, now it is completely not seen in the area.
A total of 106 species of hydrophytes under different groups have been observed in the Hakaluki Haor area (CNRS, 2004). Hydrophytes have strong seasonal abundance and occurrences. Among the 48 species of wet season hydrophytes, 8 species were marginal, 14 were rooted emergent, 4 were submerged floating, 5 were rooted submerged, 11 were emergent with floating leaves and 6 species were free floating (CWBMP, 1999)..
Among the dry season plants 75 species of hydrophytes (59 genus and 36 families) exists; whereby feeding plants 15, medicinal plants 9, fuel-providing plants 6, vegetable producing plants 6, starch yielding plants 3 and ornamental plants 1.
Photograph 5.5 Paniphal: an important edible wetland species
found frequently in the locality.
A total of 115 species of terrestrial plants were observed during wet and dry seasons respectively. Among the wet season vegetation 29 species of shrubs, 16 small trees, 5 trees like and 62 species of trees were observed. In the dry season, 151 species were observed under 122 genus and 60 families. Among the species of dry season; Supari, Aam, Dumur, Kanak, Chamir, Kanthal, Jai bansh, Muli bansh were dominant in this region. Agor is dominant in northeastern side of the Haor. Among all of the plants, fruit tree 27, medicinal plants 11, timber yielding plants 38, flower/ ornamental plants 14, beverage producing plant 1, fiber yielding plants 11, spice and condiments plants 2, rubber yielding plant 1, and sugar yielding plants 2.(CWBMP, 1999)
Here given some species collection status before 10 years ago to till now:-
5.16(A). Collection Status before 10 years ago:
As illustrated in Table 5.5, huge number of species likes Hijol, Nolkhagra, Gagra etc, abundance of Fishes; Grasses etc were presented in there. As an example for this, 15-20 pcs Hijol Trees were collected within 1-1.5 hours, 50-60 pcs Nolkhagra, 2000-300 pcs Gagra, 3-4 kg Fish and 4-5kg Grasses were found respectively within 1-1.5hours, 1 hour, 1 hour and 1 hour. It’s proved those 10 years ago, Hakaluki Haor had a great abundance of natural resources.
Resources Collection Status By Poor Peoples
Items
Status before 10 years ago
Status before 5 years ago
Present collection status
Amount
Distance
Amount
Distance
Amount
Distance
Hijol
15-20 pcs
1-1.5 mile
10-15 pcs
2-3 mile
1-2 pcs
3-5 mile
Nol
50-60 pcs
1-1.5 mile
30-40 pcs
2-3 mile
20-30 pcs
3-5 mile
Gagra
200-300 pcs
1 mile
200-300 pcs
1-2 mile
200-300 pcs
2-2.5 mile
Fishes
3-4 kg
1 mile
3-4 kg
2-2.5 mile
3-4 kg
3-4 mile
Grasses
4-5 kg
1 mile
4-5 kg
2-3 mile
4-5 kg
3-3.5 mile
Table 5.5, Resources Collection Status by Poor Peoples
5.16(B) Collection Status before 5 years ago:
As can be seen from the Table 5.5(B), five (5) years ago from today, a considerable amount of Haor resources were presented in there. As for example, 1015 pcs Hijol, 30-40 pcs Nolkhagra, 200-300 pcs Gagra, 3-4 kg Fish, and 4-5 kg Grasses etc were found respectively within 2-2.5 hours, 1.5-2 hours, 1.5-2 hours, 2 hours and 2 hours.
5.16(C). Present collection status:
In Table C, showed that Haor resources touched a dead condition. As for example, nowadays only 1-2 pcs of Hijol are collected within 3-4 hours, but 10 years ago, huge amount of Hijol could be collected within 3-4 hours. Rest of the Haor resources also to be the same condition like grasses, fish etc.
Above the following discussion, we can say that, Hakaluki Haor faces a great threat of their environmental condition because of decreasing its natural resources which had played a great role to balance its environmental condition. But, nowadays due to the absences of natural resources, it’s loosed the balancing environmental condition. Such type of condition was created because of the illogical harvest of its resources. Large number of population within adjacent the Hakaluki Haor whose are fully dependent on its resources. As a result, it creates a great pressure on the Haor resources. Day by day, peoples demand is increasing, as a result pressure also increase on the Haor resources. But resources are limited and could not fulfill the increasing demand. Haor resources are collected in unwanted way; as a result it becomes to be Ecologically Critical Area. 5.17 Resources used pattern by the local people:
Most of the people’s in the Haor areas are poor, Illiterate. Most of the time, they lead their life by practicing farming, sometimes it’s converted to farming. It’s mainly depending on the seasonal variation. Using pattern of resources of the Haor areas also depend on the social condition of the Haor adjacent people’s.
Illustrating in the Table 5.6, in case of poor men, main occupation was the Farming, Labor was the secondary occupation. In cause of them, Most of the family members like male, Female, and Child are involve for doing such types of work. Here, noted that their monthly income varies from 3000-3500 BDT.
In case of middle man, their main income source was also farming, secondary income sources were poultry, take lease Beel from the Government. In here, male were involve for doing their work. Their average monthly income varies from 5000-5500 BDT. Most of the people are such type of group in the Haor areas.
And, in case of Rich man, their main income also come from the farming, but a major part of the income also come from the remittances, also come from the leased Beel. Here also only involve male person. Their average monthly income varies from 15000-16000 BDT.
Table 5.6 Resources used pattern by the local people
Condition
Main sources
Secondary sources
Engaged people
(M/F/C)
Income From Haor (TK)/ yr
Poor man
Farming, Fishing
Labor
M, F,C
40,000
Middle man
Farming
Poultry, Leased Beel, Small Business.
M
60,000
Rich man
Farming
Leased Beel, Remittances
M
2,00,000
Above average discussion, here we see that, adjacent peoples in the Haor area are fully depend on the Haor resources, specially middle man and poor man are fully involve on Hakaluki Haor for their livelihood activities. Here also noted that most of the people are under the poor and middle criteria. So, we can easily say that every person in the adjacent Haor area is depending on The Hakaluki Haor. So, Hakaluki Haor deals a great value for every living stage of the adjacent peoples.
CHAPTER: 6 (SIX)
Recommendation and Conclusion.
6.1 Recommendation:
After appraising the prevailing conditions through discussions with participating NGOs, various personnel and local people as well as field visits, it was realized that some practical initiatives should be taken to reverse the current plant resource degradation and improve the peoples socio-economic condition whose are living adjacent to the Hakaluki Haor areas. In the light of the objectives and outputs of the Sustainable Environment Management Programmed, the following recommendations are being proposed.
6.1.1 Establishment and management of Hijol-Koroch plantations:
Of all the prevailing species found in the Hakaluki Haor, Hijol, koroch, barun, Gagra etc. are the most important, useful and demand-oriented ones. Their abundance in the area is only a history now. Over-use, coupled with conversion of Hijol and karoch rich areas into paddy fields and lack of regeneration efforts have pushed the tree resources to the edge of extinction. Nowadays, only a few scattered clumps of old trees could be seen as remnants of the once flourishing freshwater forest cover. It is high time we paid attention to protection and reestablishment of these species.
The potential sites for Hijol and Koroch are
• The kandu areas of the bttof basins
• Submergible embankment edges in the floodplains
• Submergible roadsides in the floodplains
• Edges of the kuas in the floodplains
• Edges of excavated canals and their banks in both areas
Plantation may be established by involving local community groups through a mechanism of sharing the yield. In case of roadside plantations, the roadside farmers likely to be affected by the shade from the trees in the future could be included along with the benefit sharing group and their probable losses. Alternatively, these farmers could separately be included in the programmed as a stakeholder to achieve the desired goal of sustainability of these plantations.
Community involvement with a benefit sharing mechanism, in any tree planting/ afforestation programme is assumed to be the key to its success. A clear cut agreements, elucidating the proportion of benefits that would accrue to different stakeholders, need to be enforced and if required, such agreement should be registered. A scheme through any “food for work” programmed or daily wages, for watching and maintenance of the newly planted trees during the first two or three years of planting could ensure success.
6.1.2 Using native plants in the plantation programme:
It is wise to plant indigenous species in any plantation programme. The use of indigenous plants to a given region is crucial in habitat restoration. In a wetland restoration program, indigenous plants offer many advantages and help to create self- sustaining, low-cost habitat maintenance.
Native plants are drought and disease tolerant, many are low-lived perennials which survive for decades, attract butterflies, native birds and beneficial insects, help to restore plant diversity as well as stabilize and replenish soil nutrients, and they are sturdier than many of their non-native, even cultivated cousins. Indigenous plants also play a vital role in absorbing excess nutrients from runoff and therefore preferred in buffer strips, filter strips, and vegetated swales.
Although native plants require the same care and attention as exotics, cultivated species once established could survive and thrive for many years with little maintenance. In the wetland restoration or restoration of swamp forest, indigenous species viz. Hijol, Karoch, Barun, Panibaj, Kash, Khagra, etc. should be given.
6.1.3 Tree planting in homesteads:
The crowded homesteads have little opportunity for large scale tree planting, but there are enough scope for improving the existing stock and replacement. Some of the inhabitants of Hakaluki haor area commonly growing Kanthhal (jackfruit) trees might be replaced by economically more viable species like Safeda (Manilkara achras}, Grafted Boroi or Kul (Zizyphus mauritiana). The villagers may be encouraged to grow some fodder plants such as Babla (Acacia nilotica), etc. to meet the acute shortage of fodder during monsoon. In crowded homesteads, fruit species should be preferred to the forestry species. But, when there is enough space available, planting of forestry species such as Khoi Babla (Acacia nilotica), Ashok (Saraca indicda), Kadom (Anthocephalus chinensis), Raintree (Albizia saman), etc. would be beneficial for earning cash with little effort.
6.1.4 Plantation of patipata:
Patipata (Schumannanthus dichotomd) is a very suitable crop for growing in any marshy fallow land. The following sites under the project area in particular may be brought under patipata cultivation:
Ø The marshy fallow land in and around the homesteads.
Ø The shallow inundated areas of haor area.
Ø Third layer of vegetative “wave and erosion combating” belt, next to the homesteads in most of the haor and floodplain areas.
6.1.5 Establishment of three-layer vegetative protection belt for homesteads:
The homesteads in the low-lying areas (haor and beel) are subjected to wave action and water-thrust. Such features often cause soil erosion. To protect the homesteads, especially during the monsoon months, a vegetative protection measures is suggested in and around them. Three such belts may be created one behind the other with a view to reduce the intensity of wave action. The frontmost belts may be of karoch planted at a close spacing of 4'x4'. The next belt may be of Khagra (Pragmites karka) planted at a spacing of 1'xl'. The third belt will be the closer to the homesteads and its edge can be planted with Patipata at a spacing of 1'xl'. The width of these belts will vary from locality to locality, depending on the availability of suitable sites for planting. Establishment of such layers of vegetation will help to protect the homesteads from wave action. The karoch belt may gradually be replaced by monsoon. In crowded homesteads, fruit species should be preferred to the forestry species. But when there is enough space available, planting of forestry species such as Khoi Babla (Acacia nilotica), Ashok (Samoa indicd), Kadom (Anthocephalus chinemis), Raintree (Albizia saman) etc. would be beneficial for earning cash with little effort.
6.1.6 Encouraging household based products:
It has been observed that in haor areas, khejur (date palm) leaves are used for making mats by the skilled locals. These workers may be organized a little further and provided with snort training so Chat they can produce newer items like waste paper, fruit baskets, lamp-shades, decoration pieces, etc. using khejur fronds. These producrs are likely to fetch lucrative prices. . Groups may be organized and assistance may be provided to these groups along with securing some sort of marketing facilities in the nearby city markets. Similarly, necessary guidance and training may be given to the organized groups to enable them to produce quality mat and shitalpati from putipata. These will definitely help in poverty alleviation in the project areas.
6.1.7 Restoration of Swamp Forest :
Remnant stands of haor swamp forest species mainly Hijol (Batringtonia aculangulata) Koroch (Pongamia pinnata) and Barun (Craiaeva nurvala) are still sparsely distributed and common in some of the wetlands areas. Swamp forests are under pressure from conversion to agricultural land, grazing and felling. These processes are very rapidly affecting the remnant swamp forest adversely. Stakeholders of the projects, therefore, identified swamp forest restoration as one of the most important activities for sustainable development and management of the wetland ecosystem.
6.1.8 Development and planning:
a. The planning strategies for development of Hakaluki Haor areas maybe developed keeping in view the national needs and priorities for their conservation and development.
b. Participation of local communities/NGOs/CBOs/PVOs in planning,implementation and management of development interventions should be given due recognition by concern agencies.
c. Environmental mitigation measures should be made integral part ofall development projects, including those under implementation, having major adverse impacts through appropriate Environmental Impact Assessment (E1A).
d. Appropriate institutional framework needs to be set up by involving
all concerned agencies for effective coordination in sustainable management.
6.1.9 Monitoring:
a. Monitoring of impacts from development interventions in haor areas should constitute a component of development projects.
b. The critical areas should be continuously monitored to ensure thateffective measures are taken for arresting further degradation
6.1.10. It is necessary to establish a National Wetland Committee consistingof representatives from all relevant Ministries/Divisions/Departments/Agencies/NGOs environmental groups/researchorganizations and other concerned groups. The Committee wouldgive overall guidance to wetland management activities and monitorimplementation of the action programme. The Ministry ofEnvironment and Forest should take steps to initiate this kind ofarrangement.
6.1.11. Involvement of concerned people from different quarter should beensured from the very initial stage of development schemes in thewetland areas. There should be a continuous interaction between thelocal people and the development agents. This exchange process canreduce the adverse impacts of development schemes.
6.1.12 A final word on integration:
Fish, agriculture and forest resources though renewable, are very closely tagged with land and compete among themselves for the land, which is definitely scarce. Its allocation to these competing uses need to be well judged and integrated to harvest the best possible benefits, not only in terms of economic gain alone, but also for the overall or global benefits such as biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, etc. Thus integration of these sectors is of' utmost importance. To achieve this goal, well-judged adjustments from time to time will be required.
6.2 Conclusions:
The fact that Hakaluki haor has been designated as an Ecologically Critical Area signifies its importance as a reservoir of disappearing natural resources. This study underscores the reality that that Hakaluki also constitutes an important source of natural capital, which yields high economic and livelihood values to surrounding populations and the country as a whole.
Survey findings show that more than 80% of local households depend on wetland resources, and that the bulk of income-earning and livelihood opportunities in the area are wetland-based. The wetland also generates a series of economically important ecosystem services, which function to underpin, support and safeguard essential production and consumption processes. In total, it has been estimated that Hakaluki haor is worth at least BDT 585 million, or an average of BDT 48,000/hectare. (CWBMP-2000).
The study describes inter-linkages between wetland ecology and economic processes. In addition to confirming the economic value attached to wetland conservation, it highlights the costs associated with the loss or degradation of wetland goods and services in terms of losses to livelihoods and the economy.
To conserve biodiversity and protect the natural resources of Hakaluki Haor the initiative and measure should be taken which are swamp forest restoration and conservation, sustainable management of fisheries resources, production of wildlife, resources substitution for conservation of wetland ecology, ensure alternative sources of income and development of community based organization.
Government should formulate appropriate policy and necessary law and should to create awareness among (he people to preserving it biodiversity. It is also necessary to co-ordinate among different Ministry, specially Ministry of Forestry and Environment, Ministry of water resource, Ministry of land.
References
Alam, M.K., Mohiuddin, M. and Guha, M.K. 1991. Trees for low-lying areas of Bangladesh. FRI publication. Government of Bangladesh. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong, 98 pp.
Ali, M. Y. 1990. Open Water Fisheries and Environmental Changes. In khan M.S.; Haq E.; Huq S.; Rahman A.A.; Rashid S.M.A. and Ahmed H. 1994. Wetlands of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies in associated with Nature Conservation Movement. Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh.
Akonda, A. W. 1989. Wetlands of Bangladesh. In Khan M.S.; Haq E.; Huq S.; Rahman A.A.; Rashid S.M.A, and Ahmed H. 1994. Wetlands of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies in associated with Nature Conservation Movement. Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh.
Anonymous. 1999. Ecologically Critical areas of Bangladesh [Online April 2007] URL: http://ramsar.org/profile/profiles/_bangladesh.htm.
Biber-Klemm, S. 1991. International Legal instruments for the protection of migratory birds: An overview of the West Palearctic-African flyways. In Nishat, A.; Hussain, Z.; Roy, M. K. and Karim, A. 1993. Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
Boere, G. C. 1991. The Bonn Convention and the conservation of migratory birds. In Nishat, A.; Hussain, Z.; Roy, M.K. and Karim, A. 1993. Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
CNRS (Centre for Natural Resource Study), 2002. Bio-physical characteristics of Hakaluki Haor. Pp: 7-20.
CWBMP (Coastal and Wetland Biodiversity Management Project), 1999. Plant Biodiversity. Department of Environment. Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh.
Choudhury, J.K. and Faisal, A. M. 2005. Plant Resources of Haors and Floodplains; An Overview. IUCN-The World Conservation Union. Bangladesh Country office, Dhaka.
Dugan, P.J. 1990. Wetland Conservation: A Review of Current Issues and Required Action. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. In Nishat, A.; Hussain,
Z.; Roy, M.Kr and Karim, A. - 1993. Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
FAP (Flood Action Plan)-6, 1993. Wetland Resources Specialist Study. Northeast Regional Water Management Project. Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Water Development Board. Flood Plan Coordination Organization and Canadian International Development Agency.
Gulati, N.K.I 981. A Glossary of Forestry Terms. International Book Distributors, Rajpur Road, Dehra Dun. pp: 190.
Ghani, A. 1998. Medicinal Plants of Bangladesh. Chemical Constituents and Uses. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Dhaka, pp: 460.
Hails, A. J. 1996. Wetland Biodiversity and the Ramsar Convention: The roles of the conservation on wetlands in the Conservation and wise use of Biodiversity. Ramsar, Switzerland, pp: 10-12.
IWRB, 1992.Action Programme for the Conservation of Wetlands in South and West Asia. In Nishat, A.; Hussain, Z.; Roy, M.K. and Karim, A. Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
Islam, A.K.M.; Nurul, M. and Paul, N. 1978. Hydro-biological study of the Hakaluki Haor in Sylhet. Journal of Asiatic Society Bangladesh (Science): 111-113
Karim, A. 1993. Plant diversity and their conservation in freshwater wetlands. In Nishat, A.; Hussain, Z.; Roy, M.K. and Karim, A. 1993. Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
Khan, M.S.; Haq, E.; Huq, S.; Rahman, A.A.; Rashid S.M.A. and Ahmed H.
1994. Wetlands of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Centre for AdvancedStudies in associated with Nature Conservation Movement,Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh, pp: 2.
Ministry of Environment and Forest (MOEF), 1991. Bangladesh Country Report for. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. Dhaka.
Nishat, A.; Hussain, Z.; Roy, M.K. and Karim, A. 1993. Freshwater Wetlands in
Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
UNCED, 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity; United Nations Commission for Environment and Development, Rio dc Janerio, Brazil. In Nishat, A.; Hussain, Z.; Roy, M.K. and Karim. A. 1993. Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management. IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland.
UNDP, 1994. Bangladesh: Coastal and Wetland Biodiversity Management at Cox’S Bazar and Hakaluki Haor. pp: 21.
Yousuf, M., Rahman, M.O., Khan, M.S. and Huq, S. 1997. Angiospermic flora of Chanda Beel, Gopalgonj district in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Plant Taxonomy 4(2): 25-36.
Appendices
Appendix-1: List of wetland plants found in Hakaluki Haor
Submerged:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Muamia, kaowathukri
Sagittaria guayanemis
Alismataceae
Chhotokul
Sagittaria sagittifolia
Alismataceae
Ghechu
Aponogeton nalans
Aponogetonaceae
Ghechu
Aponogeton undulates
Aponogetonaceae
Jhangi, katajhanji
Ceratophyllum desmerswn
Ceartophyllaceae
Jhanji
Ceratophyllurn desmersum
Ceartophy11aceae
Shayala
Blyxa echinospema
Hydrocharitaceae
Kureli
Hydrilla verticillata
Hydrocharitaceae
Panikola, kaorali
Ottelia alismoides
Hydrocharitaceae
Pataseola, Bicha
Vallisnaria spiralis
Hydrocharitaceae
Keorafi
Potamogelon crispus
Potamogetoceae
Keorali
Potamogeton mucronatus
Potamogetoceae
Keorali
Potamogeton peciinatus
Potamogetoceae
Free floating:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Topapana
Pistia staatiotes
Araceae
Khudipana
Pemma pcrpusilla
Lemnaceae
Khudipana
Spirodela polyrthiza
Lemnaceae
Khudipana
Spirodela punctaia
Lemnaceae
Guripana
Wolffia arrhiza
Lemnaceae
Guripana
Wolffia microscopica
Lemnaceae
Chotojhanji
Ulricularia aurea
Lentibulariaceae
Chotojhanji
Utricularia exileata
Lentibulariaceae
Chotojhanji
Utricularia stellaris
Lentibulariaceae
Chandmala
Nymphoides cristatum
Menynthaceae
Panchuli
Nymphoides indicum
Menynthaceae
Sushnisak
Met si lea quadrifofiata
Mensileaceae
Padma
Nelumbo nucifera
Nymphaceae
Sada, Raktoshopla
Nymphaea none-half
Nymphaceae
Nilshapla
Nymphaea setella
Nymphaceae
Kochuripana
Vichhornia pseudoraphis
Pontederiaceae
Kuripana, Indurkan
Saivinia psvudoraphis
Salvinaceae
Tetulapana
Salvinia natans
Salvinaceae
Kutipana
Volla pinnata
Salvinaceae
Karpur
Limnophlla heterophylla
Scrophulariaceae
Sedges & Meadows:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Dhol kalmi
Ipomoeae ftstulosa
Convolvulaceae
Panichaise
Fleocharis dulcis
Cyperaceae
Shola, Banda
Aeschynomena aspera
Fabaceae
Katshola, Bhatshola
Aeschvnomena indica
Fabaceae
Sitalpati
Clynogyne dicholoma
Marantaceae
Panidoga
Ludwigia repens
Onagraceae
Ekor, khuri
Selerostachya fusca
Poaceae
Pinginatchi
Setariafusca
Poaceae
Kulkulle, kauni
Selaria glaitca
Poaceae
Bishkatali
Polygonum barbatum
Polygonaceae
Bishkatali, Kukra
Polygonum glabrum
Polygonaceae
Kukra
Polygonum lanatum
Polygonaceae
Kukra
Polygonum pedunculare
Polygonaceae
Bishkatali, Kukra
Polygonum stagninum
Polygonaceae
Baranukha, kechur
Monochoria hastate
Polygonaceae
Reeds:
Local Name
Scientific Name
Family
Khagra, Nol
Phragmites karka
Poaceae
Haicha, Sachishak
A Iternanthera sessilis
Amaranthaceae
Kata note
Amaranthus spinosus
Amaranthaceae
Fulkuri
Ageratum conyzoidcs
Asteraceae
Machiti, Hachuti
Cetipeda orbicularis
Asteraceae
Machiti, Hachuti
Cotula hemisperica
Asteraceae
Assamlata
Eupaiorium odoratum
Asteraceae
Tripankhi
Coldenia procumbens
Boraginaceae
Baron
Cratacva nurvala
Capparidaceae
Chapali ghash
Chenopodium ambrosoides
Capparidaceae
Swarnalata
Cuscuta auslralis
Convolvulaceae
Niratraba
Cypents cephaloles
Cyperaceae
Panichaise
Eleocharis atropurpurea
Cyperaceae
Morchagra, Banjhal
Crolon bonplandlanum
Euphorbiaceae
Chitki
Phvllanthus dislicha
Euphorbiaceae
Chitki
Phyllanthus reticulates
Euphorbiaceae
Gotagamer, Panidumur
Trewia nudiflora
Euphorbiaceae
Hijol
Barringtonia aculangula
Lecythidaceae
Karanch
Pongamia pinnata
Papilionoideae
Durba
Cynodon dactylon
Poaceae
Chota fulka
Digitaria longifolia
Poaceae
Gaicha, chapre
Eleusina indica
Poaceae
Sadaphuli, Sadajabria
Denlella repens
Rubiaceae
Bias, Panihijal
Salix teirasperma
Salicaceae
Alughas, Kakdim
Glinus lotoides
MoUuginaceae
Nemuti, Namuti
Grangea madaraspatana
Asteraceae
Hatisur
Heliotropium indicum
Boraginaceae
Brahmishak
Herpestis manniera
Scrophulariaceae
Jalibet
Calamus tennis
Aracaceae
Barahalkasunda
Cassia occidentalis
Fabaceae
Minjiri, Eskikoroi
Cassia siamea
Fabaceae
Bansupari, Chaur
Caryola urens
Aracaceae
Thankuni
Centella asiatica
Apiaceae
Bulkokra
Chaetocarpus casianocarpus
Euphorbiaceae
Jambura
Citrus grandis
Rutaceae
Bamanhati, Banchat
Cleorodendrum siphonanthus
Verbenaceae
Narical
Cocos nucifera
Aracaceae
Jhanjhani
Croialaria saltiana
Fabaceae
Gab, Desighab
Diospyros perigrina
Ebenaceae
Rajghanta
Datura suaveolcns
Solanaceae
Mander, Piltamander
Erythrina variegate
Fabaceae
Tilamander
Erythrina ovatifolia
Fabaceae
Bot
Ficus benghalensis
Moraceae
Hijulia
Ficus rumphii
Moraceae
Assawath
Ficus rcligiosa
Moraceae
Dumur
Ficus his pi da
Moraceae
Jarul
Lagerstroemia speciosa
Lythraceae
Am
Mangifera indica
Anacardiaceae
Tikiokra
Mdochia corchorrifotia
Sterculaceae
Veratilata
Mikanla cordata
Asteraceae
Kala
Musa paradisiaca
Musaceae
Tulshi
Ocimum amcricanum
Lamiaceae
Bantepari
Physalis minima
Solanaceae
Monchata
Randia dwnclorum
Rubiaceae
Reri, Bheranda
Ricinus communi
Euphorbiaceae
Rendi, Rain tree
Samanea saman
Fabaceae
Harua, Batul
Sapium indicum
Euphorbiaceae
Khudijam
Syzygium fruticosa
Myrtaceae
Kalojam
Syzygium cumini
Myrtaceae
Kathadam.Deshibadam
Terminalia catappa
Combretaceae
Appendix-2: Globally Significant Wetland Species
Scientific name
Local Name
Alternanthera philoxeroides
Malancho
Apnogeton spp.
Ghechu
Colocasia esculenla
Kachu, loti
Enhydra fluctuam
Helancha
Eichhorina spp.
Kachuripana
Euryale ferox
Makhna
Hrgrophila auriculata
Kulekhana
Ipomoea aquatica
Kalmi
Nelumbo nucifcra
Padma
Nymphaea nouchali
Shapla
Otleiia alismoides
Ramkarola, sham kola
Persicarea spp
Biskatali, Pani morich
Trapa. maximowiczii
Singra
Appendix-3: Survey Questionnaire:
1) District Code:
2) Number of Family Members:
3) Number of Earning Family Members:
4) Educational Qualification:
5) Village:
6) What is the main occupation of your family?
a. Agriculture - (own land, leased, orchard, nursery)
b. Fishing - (full time, part time, leased, guard, trader)
c.Transport related activities - (Boatman, bus driver)
d. Laborer - (Agriculture, industrial, trading)
e. Small business - (handicraft etc.)
f. Remittance
g. Others - Livestock, poultry, herbal healers student, service holder)
7) Average monthly income?
1. Maximum 1500 BDT
2. 1500-3000 BDT
3. 3000-5000 BDT
4. 5000-7000 BDT
8) What were the income sources?
Sources
Income (TK)
Agriculture
From crops
Leased
Nursery and orchard
Laborer
Agriculture
Industrial and Trade
Fishing/ Fish cultivation
From river, haor, beel
Pond
Transportation
Road
Water way
Business
Handicrafts
Shops
Small industry
Remittance
Foreign
Inland
Rearing
Livestock
Poultry
9) Type of house: Please provide information on type of house you are living (only for bedroom, kitchen and drawing room)
Type of wall
Material used for roofing
Straw
Tin
Cement
Others
Straw
Bamboo
Wood/tin
Brick and cement
10) Type of latrines in the house: 1= Sanitary 2=Ring/slab 3= Open latrine 4= Bush/ open place/canal/river bank 5= Others
11). Source of water for drinking, cooking and bathing: 1= Deep tube-well 2= Shallow tube-well 3= Well 4= Pond/canal/river water 5= rain water 6=Tap water 7= Others
12) Source of light:
1 = Kerosene 2= Electricity 3= Bio-gas
4= Candles 5= solar lamp 6= Battery powered light
13) Information about fuel wood collection:
Fuel wood Type
Engaged peoples( M / F)
Quantity ( uses)
Low
Medium
High
1. Hijol
2. Karach
3. Nol Khagra
4. Dry Trees
5. Others
Note: M= Male, F= Femal
14) Other expenditure by the family:
Area of Expenditure
Expenses
Time code
(1 =daily 2=weekly 3 =monthly 4 =yearly )
Clothing
Education
Health/ treatment
Electricity
Energy
Transport
Entertainment
Others
15. a) Involving any organization?
1= irrigation/Pump 6=cooperative 2= farmer's association 7=youth society 3=Fishermen society 8= women cooperatives 4= farmer-labor union 9=industrial labor union 5=volunteer
b) Family members who are involve?
16) Do you own the land where you grow crops? 1= Yes 2=No,
17) Economic activities in Haor:
Items
Land Used in Haor (%)
Produced
Consumed
Selling
Quantity (TK/ Year)
Crops
Rice
Fish
Vegetables
Poultry
Grazing
Others
18) Do you visit the haor to extract its natural resources? Yes=1 no=219) Do you face any restrictions during resource collection? Yes=1 no=2
20) What are the activities get hindered in haor?
(1) During fishing (2) Tree cutting (3) Fuel wood collection (4) Herb collection (5 Hunting (6) Sand extraction (7) Food collection 8) Fodder collection (9) Grazing (10) Poultry
(II) Cow dung collection (12) others
21) Who imposes the restrictions?
1. Government
2. Lease holder
3. Influential persons
4. Land owner
5. Others
22) Are you or your family members involved in fishing?
1. Fish catching
2. Whole selling
3. Individual selling
4. Fish drying
5. Fish weaving
6. Net selling
7. Fishing boat
8. Labor
9. Ice selling
10. Ice factory
23) What are the existing fisheries resource management practices?
1. Community based management
2. Leasing system
3. Open access
4. Equal right
5. Village right
6. Individual right
7. Others
24) How do people participate in the existing fishing system?
1. Labor
2. Trading
3. Food collection
4. Service
5. Others
25) What are the economic activities that depend on haor resources?
1. Commercial fishing
2. Fuel wood collection
3. Bird hunting
4. Nol khagra selling
5. Sand extraction
6. Grazing
7. Poultry
8. Others
26) Who are the initiators and who are the workers in implementing the activities?
1. Local MP
2. Lease holder
3. Local people
4. Influential persons
5. Others
27) Who are working as labors?
1. Locals
2. Villagers
3. Day labors
4. Others
28) Please answer the followings if you and/or your family members are involved in any haor resource collection/extraction.
Items
Participants (M/F/C)
Uses
Quantity
Fish
Grass/ Nol khagra
Hijol/ Korach Phul
Singra/ Paniphol
Chan/ Baida /Eilla
Vegetables
Snails / Shinai
Birds
Herbs /Medicinal plants
Others
29).Do you sell anything that you collect from Haor? Yes =1 No =2
30).How much that contributes to your income?
1) Below 10%
2) 10%-50%
3) 50%-90%
4) 90%-100%
31) How much of your annual income you spend on enhancing and regenerate haorresources?
1) Below 10%
2) 10%-20%
3) 20% - 30%
4) Above 30%
32). what vehicle you and your family members use carry luggage?
1 = Rickshaw 2 = Non motorized van 3 = Taxi/ jeep
4 = Pick up van/ truck 5 = Bus/ Mini Bus
6 = Motorized van/ Baby taxi 7 =Motor cycle
8 = Cycle 9 = Boat
10 = Engine Boat 11 = Walking 12=Other.
33). what is your monthly expenditure on transportation?
1) Below 100 Taka
2) 100-200
3) 200-400
4) 400-500
5) Above 500 Taka
34).How is you benefiting from migratory birds? 1) Meat as food 2) Selling 3) Pet/breeding 4) Increases fish number 5) Aesthetic 6) Enhance rice production by providing fertilizer
35) What is the reason of flooding in haor area in your opinion?
1) Decreased depth of the river bed due to sedimentation 2) Decreased depth of the haor bed due to siltration 3) Absence of embankment 4) Fish culture 5) Other
36) Why should we protect the haor: (Please mention any 5 of the below).
1) Source of livelihood 6Aesthetic and source of recreation 2) Source of food 7) Good transportation route 3) Source of silt that that make the land fertile 8) Protect the natural beauty 4) Source of fuel 9) supply of water 5) Increase fish production 10) others
37) Dependency pattern in adjacent Hakaluki Haor :
Income Group
Activities
Results
Quantity ( TK)
Remarks
Poor
Lower Middle
Middle
Rich/ Member / Chairman
38. Resources collection by poor peoples from Hakaluki Haor: A. Collection Status before 10 years ago?
Items
Amount
Distance
Required Time
B. Collection Status before 5 years ago?
Items
Amount
Distance
Required Time
C. Present collection status:
Items
Amount
Distance
Required Time
39. Have any Haor based Cottage industry in adjacent Hakaluki Haor? 1. Yes. 2. No40. Resources used pattern by the local people:
Activities
Main source?
If no, then-Secondary source?
Engaged people
(M/F/C)
Income
From Haor (TK)
Primary
Secondary
Yes
no
Poor man
Middle man
Rich man
Others
.
.
.
