Sundarban at a Glance
The Sundarbans , claimed to be the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world, lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India, forming the seaward fringe of the delta. The forest covers 10,000 sqkm of which about 6,000 are in Bangladesh. It got inscripted as a UNESCO world heritage site in 1997; but while the Bangladeshi and Indian portions constitute the same continuous ecotope, these are separately listed in the UNESCO world heritage list as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengal Tiger, as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. It is estimated that there are now 500 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
Etymology
"Sundarban" literally means "beautiful jungle" or "beautiful forest" in the Bengali language. The name Sundarbans may also have been derived from the Sundari trees that are found in Sundarbans in large numbers. Other possible explanations can be a derivation from "Samudra Ban" (Sea Forest) or "Chandra-bandhe" (name of a primitive tribe). But the generally accepted view is the one associated with Sundari trees.
History
During the Mughal period (1203-1538), the local kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans out. The history of changes in legal status boasts a number of unique features including the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management. The area was mapped by the Surveyor General as early as 1764 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor, Alamgir II, by the East India Company in 1757. Systematic management of this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of Bengal, in India.
The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. The Sundarbans was declared a reserved forest in 1875-76, under the Forest Act, 1965 (Act VIII of 1965). The first management plan was written for the period 1893-98. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of forests was declared as reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far was administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarter in Khulna.
In 1911, it was described as a tract of waste country which had never been surveyed, nor had the census been extended to it. It then stretched for about 165 miles (266 km) from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna, and was bordered inland by the three settled districts of the Twenty-four Parganas, Khulna and Backergunje. The total area (including water) was estimated at 6,526 square miles (16,902 km²). It was a water-logged jungle, in which tigers and other wild beasts abounded. Attempts at reclamation had not been very successful. The characteristic tree was the Sundari (Heritiera littoralis), from which the name of the tract had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building, and for making boats, furniture, etc. The Sundarbans were everywhere intersected by river channels and creeks, some of which afforded water communication between Kolkata and the Brahmaputra valley, both for steamers and for native boats.
Physiography
This satellite image shows the forest in the protected area. The Sundarbans appears deep green, surrounded to the north by a landscape of agricultural lands, which appear lighter green, towns, which appear tan, and streams, which are blue.
The mangrove-dominated Ganges delta – the Sundarbans - is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tract of mangrove forests of the world. Shared between two neighboring countries, Bangladesh and India, the larger part (62%)is situated in the southwest corner of Bangladesh. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 sq km. Now it has dwindled to about 1/3 of the original size. The total land area today is 4,143 km² (including exposed sandbars: 42 km²) and the remaining water area of 1,874 km² encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal (Wahid et al.. 2002).
The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 m to 2.11 m above sea level.
Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed including beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays an important role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers and grasses and sedges stabilizes sand dunes and uncompacted sediments.
Climate change impact
The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon. These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change.
In many of the Indian mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the late 19th century due to diversion of freshwater in the upstream area. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east due to neo-tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian Sundarbans. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-cm rise in sea level (likely by the end of the twenty-first century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75% of the Sundarbans mangroves.
Flora
Sundari tree
The Sundarbans flora is characterized by the abundance of Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops decandra and Sonneratia apetala. A total 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by Prain in 1903. Since Prain’s report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora. However, very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Whilst most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterized by members of the Rhizophoraceae, Avicenneaceae or Laganculariaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Sterculiaceae and Euphorbiaceae.
The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest and upland forests associations. Unlike the former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation. The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres, comprising primary colonization on new accretions to more mature beach forests, often conspicuously dominated by Keora (Sonneratia apetala) and tidal forests. Historically three principal vegetation types have been recognized in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography and which are represented in the wildlife sanctuaries:
Sundari and Gewa occur prominently throughout the area with discontinuous distribution of Dhundul (Xylocarpus granatum) and Kankra. Among grasses and Palms, Poresia coaractata, Myriostachya wightiana, Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites karka, Nypa fruticans are well distributed. Keora is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer (Axis axis). Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of brakish and freshwater marshes, intertidal mudflats, sandflats, sand dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees.
Succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone. Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil.
The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted site is Sonneratia, followed by Avicennia and Nypa. As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is Excoecaria. As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear.
Fauna
Chitals are widely seen in the Sunderbans
The Sundarbans is very rich in wildlife. However the management of wildlife is presently restricted to the protection of fauna from poaching and designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and the wildlife face few disturbance. Although it is clear that the faunal resource of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition of wildlife and its management. The Sundarbans are home to approximately 500 Bengal Tigers as of 2004, one of the largest single population of tigers.
Blue-eared Kingfisher sighted in the Sundarbans.
The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and extensive habitats for wildlife. A human interface in the Sundarbans in terms of resource extraction and forest management has important effects on wildlife habitats and populations. The river terrapin (Betagur baska), Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata), peacock soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx hurum), yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens), water monitor (Varanus salvator), Indian python (Python molurus) and the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) are some of the resident species. Some of these species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). Some species such as hog deer (Axis procinus), water buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), Javan rhinoceros (Rhiniceros sondaicus), single horned rhiniceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) have become extinct in the Sundarbans at the beginning of this century.
A crocodile at Sundarbans.
Recent studies revealed that the Bangladesh Sundarbans support diverse biological resources including at least 120 species of commercially important fishes, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and eight amphibian species. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes a large number of species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Of these wildlife, Sarker has noted that two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are presently endangered. The Sundarbans is a paradise for the ornithologists for watching, study and research on avifauna.
Man-eating Tigers
The Sundarbans are home to approximately 500 Bengal Tigers as of 2004, one of the largest single population of tigers. These tigers are well-known for the substantial number of people they kill; estimates range from 100-250 people per year. They are not the only tigers who live in close proximity to humans. In Bandhavgarh, villages encircle the tiger reserves, and yet attacks on people are rare.
A Royal Bengal tiger
The locals and government officials take certain precautions to prevent attacks. Local fishermen will say prayers and perform rituals to the forest goddess, Bonbibi, before setting out on expeditions. Invocations to the tiger god Dakshin Ray (pronounced "DOCK-shun ROY") are also considered a necessity by the local populace for safe passage throughout the Sundarbans area. Fishermen and bushmen make facial masks to wear on the back of their heads, because tigers always attack from behind. This worked for a short time, but the tigers quickly realized it was a hoax, and the attacks continued. Government officials wear stiff pads that rise up the back of the neck, similar to the pads of an American football player. This is to prevent the tigers from biting into the spine, which is their favored attack method.
There are several speculated causes as to why these tigers maul humans:
Since the Sundarbans is located in a coastal area, the water is relatively salty. In all other habitats, tigers drink fresh water. It is rumored that the saltiness of the tiger's water in this area has put them in a state of constant discomfort, leading them to be extremely aggressive. Freshwater lakes have been artificially made but to no avail.
The high tides in the area destroy the tiger's scents which serve as territorial markers. Thus, the only way for a tiger to defend its territory is to physically dominate everything that enters.
Another possibility is that these tigers have grown used to human flesh due to the weather. Typhoons in this part of India and Bangladesh kill thousands, and the bodies drift out in to the swampy waters, where tigers scavenge on them.
Another possibility is that the tigers find hunting animals difficult due to the continuous high and low tides making the area marsh-like and slippery. Humans travel through the Sundarbans on boats gathering honey and fishing, making an easy or accessible prey. It is also believed that when a person stops to work, the tiger mistakes them for an animal, and has, over time, acquired a 'taste' for the human flesh.
It has also been hypothesized that the tigers in this area, due to their secluded habitat, avoided the brunt of the hunting sprees that occurred over the course of the 20th century. Tigers inhabiting the rest of Asia developed a fear of humans after these events, but tigers in the Sundarbans would never have had reason to stop seeing humans as a prey item.
Economy
Fishing boat in the Sundarbans
The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation.
The Sundarbans play an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest provides raw material for wood based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large scale harvest of non wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey, bees-wax, fish, crustacean and mollusk resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans also function as an essential habitat, nutrient producer, water purifier, nutrient and sediment trap, storm barrier, shore stabilizer, energy storage unit and aesthetic attraction.
The forest also has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country (FAO 1995). A number of industries (e.g. newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on the raw material obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Various non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income generation opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal population. Besides production functions of the forest, it provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclone prone Bangladesh.
Despite human habitations and economic exploitation of the forest, Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1985.
Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species — sundri (Heritiera fomes} and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha} — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983 (Forestal 1960 and ODA 1985). Also, despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there appears to be a pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile this century), and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining" (IUCN 1994).
Sanctuaries in Bangladesh
The Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 sq km, of which about 1,700 sq km is occupied by waterbodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several kilometers. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai, Sarankhola, Khulna and Burigoalini and has 16 forest stations. It is further divided into 55 compartments and 9 blocks.
A new Khulna Forest Circle to preserve the forest was created in 1993 and a Conservator of Forests has been posted. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer who is also based at Khulna. The Divisional Forest Officer has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rives, canals and creeks.
There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). These are:
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 31,227 ha. Freshwater and Sundri (Heritiera fomes) dominate interspersed with Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is a understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where, soils are drier and Amur (Amoora cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran (Ceriops decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) widespread along drainage lines.
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 36,970 ha. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran and sometimes Passur.
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 71,502 ha. Includes areas which support sparse Gewa and dense stands of Goran and discontinuous patches of Hantal palm (Phoenix paludosa) on drier ground and river banks and levees.
Resources of Sundarban
1.Forest Resources of Sundarban
Location and history
The Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF), occupying an area of around 6,017 square kilometres or 600,000 hectares, represents 51 percent of the total reserved forest area of Bangladesh and as such forms a rich and diverse ecosystem with potential for sustainable natural resource management. Man has exploited the Sundarban for centuries but the forest was not given Reserve status by the Forestry Department until 1875. Since that time the Forest Department has managed the forest and other natural resources of the SRF through adherence to management plans which it prepares at regular intervals.
Early management simply concentrated on revenue collection and the enforcement of felling rules to reduce overcutting, particularly in the eastern portion. The first real professional forest management planning was introduced in the SRF in the early 1900s with the introduction of the Curtis Working Plan.
However, more recently forest resource management has shifted to increase emphasis upon environmental and socio-economic issues.
The following table presents the fractions represented by forest and other land types in the Sundarban.
Areas in Sundarban
Type
Area (km2)
Percent
Forest area
3997
66
Sandbars, grass, bare ground
115
2
Rivers
1905
32
Total SRF (of which 1397 km2 represented by 3 wildlife sanctuaries)
6017
100
Source: Forest Resources Management Project 1998 (modified)
Forest Resources
The forest resource is defined as wood materials such as timber and fuelwood. Other products such as leaves, bark, and other associated non-woody plants are covered in the web page dealing with Non-Wood Forest Products.
The area of forest represented by the principal timber species is of interest for forest managers. The table below indicates the areas of forest types and is based upon stratification undertaken by ODA and refined using digitised information from satellite imagery (SPOT 1989) and aerial photography (1995).
Although the overall area of forest in the SRF is known, the crucial question is what is the volume by species, what is the growth rate and is the extraction exceeding the growth? This sustainability question is partially answered through reference to the results of various forest inventories.
Forest Sustainability
The results of four independent inventories undertaken over the past seventy years would seem to indicate that the overall volume per hectare has decreased. Moreover, closer analysis of three inventories undertaken in 1959, 1983 and 1996 indicate a marked reduction in total standing volume (expressed in millions of cubic metres) for the two principal species of economic importance, Sundri and Gewa. The following table highlights the dramatic decrease.
The reasons for the decline in Sundri, Heriteria fomes is twofold. First, as a valuable timber species with real commercial value, it has been subject to heavy exploitation, both legal and illegal. Second, subtle changes in the ecology of the area, notably increases in salinity and siltation have resulted in hostile anaerobic conditions in which the Sundri finds difficulty in healthy respiration. This has resulted in dieback whereby the tree is progressively defoliated from the top downwards.
The decline in Gewa, Excoecaria agallocha is largely attributable to harvesting of around 50,000 m3 per annum as feedstock to Khulna Newsprint Mill for the production of newsprint. Although the mill is scheduled to close, one line continues to operate.
In recognition of the importance to manage the forest resources in the SRF on a sustainable basis, the Forest Department imposed a logging moratorium in 1989 on all timber species except Gewa. Diseased Sundri is felled and cleared as part of a sanitation programme and of course illegal logging by fishermen and other collectors continues to have an impact.
Summary
In summary it can be said that the SRF has been well managed by the Forest Department for over a hundred years and represents one of the very few areas in the world where resource exploitation is controlled through strict enforcement. Although some illegal logging occurs, there is no evidence of encroachment or settlement within the Reserve and this is due to the vigilance of the Forest Department and respect for the Royal Bengal Tiger which is a renowned predator. This is a unique situation in the developing world. The three Wildlife Sanctuaries, declared as World Heritage Sites in December 1997, remain fully protected. However, when the forest resources within the SRF have recovered, the area can and should continue to provide goods and services to the people of Bangladesh as well as revenue to pay for careful management of the environment. Future sustainability of the Sundarban will be contingent upon political will, environmental awareness and the continued support from the Forest Department as custodians of the resources.
2.Aquatic Resources in Sundarban
The primary goal of the Aquatic Resource Programme is to put into place an effective management system for the aquatic biodiversity (fishes, crustaceans and molluscs) of the Sundarban, which will both protect vulnerable species and allow sustainable harvesting of fish resources over the long term.
The Fisheries Management System will be based on two major components:
1. Building of a competent fisheries administration within the Sundarban Management Unit of the Forest Department (i.e. the Aquatic Resources Division)
2. Mobilisation of fishermen to participate in fisheries resource management.
The Fisheries Management System is now beginning implementation. For example, a comprehensive one-year fisheries research and stock assessment study has been contracted out to Khulna University and is currently being implemented. The Aquatic Resource Division has conducted various filed studies and assembled a substantial collection of fish specimens. These are undergoing study. A particularly important finding is the discovery of very rare shark species of the genus Glyphis in Sundarbans waters.
3.Non-Wood Forest Products - Sundarban
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) from the Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF) play a major role in the lives of hundreds of thousands of people who live near its boundaries. These products are harvested for both subsistence and commercial purposes and represent an important source of income for land-poor families, especially during the winter months of food deficit.
Non-wood forest products (NWFP's) refer to all non-ligneous plant materialsnaturally occurring in forests and other wildland areas that are utilised by humans
Golpata (Nypa fruticans) is a regal palm that grows in monotypic stands along the banks of the numerous rivers and canals that bisect the dense mangrove forests of the Sundarban. It is by far the most important NWFP in the region. Every year, from December to May, thousands of "bawalis" (traditional forest users) collect an average of 60,000 metric tons of fronds from throughout the SRF. This number, however, could be a fraction of the actual amount harvested. The fronds are sold at several trade depots in the adjoining districts and used as a traditional roofing material throughout the country. The fruits are used to make a local wine.
Other species are important as well. Hantal (Phoenix paludosa) is a palm used in construction as rafters and framework. It is not as popular as golpata and is harvested in much smaller quantities at an average of 3000 metric tons per year. An average of 3000 metric tons of a variety of grasses are annually harvested from the SRF as well. This includes malia (Cyperus javanicus), nal (Eriochlea procera) and ulu (Imperata cylindrica). Malia is used for making mats, nal for making baskets and fences, and ulu for thatch.
Goals/Approach of the NWFP Component
Our initial assessment indicates that there appears to be no outstanding sustainability issues for NWFP’s in the SRF, although some stands/populations have reportedly been degraded from intensive and/or improper harvesting. From a biodiversity conservation perspective, it is the secondary impacts of NWFP harvesting that represent the greater threat. Simply having more people in the forest for protracted periods of time can be disruptive and offers opportunities for poaching and other types of destructive behaviour. Large-scale harvesting can also lead to bank erosion and habitat degradation of fish, amphibians, crustaceans and other riparian fauna. At present, however, we do not completely understand the role of NWFP’s in the ecology of the Sundarban.
The crucial issue is that there are no viable income alternatives for the hundreds of thousands of poor people who live around the SRF and are almost totally dependent on its resources, including NWFP’s. Thus, the long-term goal of the NWFP component echoes that of SBCP: to improve the livelihoods of impoverished users by introducing viable economic activities outside of the SRF. In doing so, it is hoped that the overall pressure on the SRF will be reduced and the forest, wildlife and environmental services it provides will be preserved. Knowing that this can take several years - in fact, decades - to accomplish, the short-term strategy is to:
· Evaluate the effectiveness of current Forest Department management practices and recommend changes, if necessary.
· Identify value-addition opportunities for species currently harvested on a sustainable basis in order to bring greater economic benefits to the impoverished communities in the area.
· Identify and restore degraded stands of important NWFP’s inside the SRF.
· Search for areas outside the SRF to produce golpata and other non-wood species in a more intensive and accessible fashion through community and private forestry programs.
· Investigate viable income and livelihood alternatives based outside the SRF for those directly engaged in NWFP harvesting.
4.Wildlife - Sundarban
Protection Status of the Sundarban
The Sundarban Forest covers 10,000 km2 of mangrove forest west of the main outflow of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Malancha rivers. Around 60 % of this area is part of Bangladesh territory and entirely gazetted Forest Reserve, which was a phased process starting in 1885. The remaining 40 % is part of India. Within the Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF). 3 Wildlife Sanctuaries were established in 1974 under the Bangladesh Wildlife Act of the same year. Around the SRF the Sundarban Biodiversity Conservation Project has identified a so-called "Impact Zone" where most of the direct users of the forest are residing.
Significance of the Sundarban biodiversity
The Sundarban ecosystem is characterised by a very dynamic environment due to the effect of tide, flooding, salinity and cyclones. As a result several remarkable species are found such as estuarine crocodile (Crocodilus porosus), spotted deer (Axis axis), dolphins (Platanista gangetica, Orcaella brevirostris, Peponocephala electra, Neophocaena phocaenoides), marine turtles (Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, Lepidochelys olivacea and Dermochelys coriacea) and, the flagship species, the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris).
The biodiversity is represented by the following taxonomic groups:
§ over 40 mammal species
§ over 270 bird species
§ over 45 reptile species
§ at least 11 amphibian species
§ over 120 fish species
§ an unknown number of invertebrates
§ more than 330 plant species
The Sundarban tiger population is supposed to be the largest surviving tiger population in the world. Estimates of the number of tigers in the Bangladesh Sundarban vary between 300 and 400. The estimates for the deer in this area are 50-80,000, for wild boar 20,000, smooth Indian otter (Lutra perspicillata) 20,000 and rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) 40,000 to 70,000.
The colourful bird life along the waterways includes species such as kingfishers (9 species), raptors (38 species), herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers, whimbrel, curlew, gulls, terns, woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongosa, mynahs, minivets, babblers and many others. Lucky birders may catch a glimpse of masket finfoot (Heliopais personata).
Threats
The SRF is surrounded by a very densely populated area, therefore human pressure is important. Around 1.2 million local users reside seasonally in the area for fishing and other resource use activities. Commercial hunting was a problem mainly before the 1970s and this resulted particularly in a serious depletion of the crocodile populations and to a lesser extent to the deer population. Although the protection has improved significantly in the last decades, illegal hunting is still occurring on an incidental basis and fishery is having an adverse impact on the populations of the remaining turtle and crocodile populations as these animals drown frequently in fishing nets.Due to natural processes the role of the Sundarban to discharge the water of the Ganges and Brahmaputra catchment is decreasing as main waterways are shifting eastwards. As a result the salinity of the Sundarban is increasing, particularly in the western region. Further, the total annual discharge is decreasing due to intensifying land use (dams, irrigation) upstream. The role of this change is not yet clear, but is evident that it will influence wildlife populations and vegetation in the long term.However, the main threat today may come from outside the area in the form of pollution. On the northern edge of the area, Mongla, Bangladesh’ second largest port, is situated. This port and its associated marine traffic is a frequent source of oil spills and there is a permanent risk of accidents with chemicals. Moreover, toxic products (pesticides, etc.) enter the system due to upstream pollution in the huge Ganges catchment. Pollution may be a direct source of mortality, but it may also reduce the health, increasing the mortality rate on the long term. Many products such as pesticides have also been proved to reduce the reproductivity (birth rate) in animal populations.A future threat is the exploitation of mineral gas, which is abundant in the underground of the Sundarban.Some species extinct during the last century are:javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli)gaur (Bos gaurus)hog deer (Axis porcinus)marsh crocodile (Crocodilus palustris)
SBCP Wildlife component
The SBCP Wildlife components involves:
1. the initiation and support of a number of studies and surveys
2. the elaboration of an integrated wildlife management plan
Studies and surveys
(1) Tiger
Although the tiger population is the largest in the world, it numbers only several hundred individuals and it is isolated from other populations. Incidental mortality due to disease, sudden prey decrease or pollution constitutes, therefore, a serious risk for the survival of the Sundarban tiger. Apart from that, the interaction with humans in the area, particularly the killing of humans by tiger, complicates the management of the area. Careful scientifically based management is therefore required for appropriate conservation of this species. Research regarding tiger will focus on population size and dynamics, distribution and tiger - human conflicts.
(2) Deer
Deer is the most important herbivore in terms of number and biomass (1150 kg/km2) and deer grazing and browsing is a main factor in the structure of the vegetation cover. Moreover, deer is the main prey of the Sundarban tiger. Deer research will focus therefore on: the distribution, habitat utilisation, food availability, drinking water dependency, the impact of grazing/browsing, and population dynamics.
(3) Other surveys and studies
Other surveys and studies that will be carried out by SBCP include marine mammals, birds, crocodiles and turtles, providing essential information for management planning and monitoring. Additional studies on hunting and vegetation will be carried out.
Management
The principal goal will be to insert wildlife management into the current management system that focuses mainly on utilisation of other resources, particularly forestry, but also fishery and non-wood forest products. This requires institutional changes in the Forest Department, which is responsible for the management of the area, training and equipping of its staff, a revised policy, and up to date legislation which is enforceable. A new management plan will follow an integrated approach involving all sectors.The management plan will address the management of habitat, for example the location of freshwater drinking ponds (to respond to increasing salinity) and maintenance of the grasslands that are crucial for deer. Nesting species such as crocodiles and turtles need extra protection. For crocodiles a restocking programme, including rearing, is in process.The current zoning of the area will be reviewed. Appropriate zoning is crucial for a sufficient representation of ecological zones, protection of specific key habitats such as nesting sites, ecological infrastructure and management of other uses (e.g. fisheries, tourism, non-wood forest products). A proposal is in process for a new sanctuary in the fresh water zone in the north of the SRF in order to represent the fresh water habitat as well in the protected area system. This zone may be appropriate for the reintroduction of buffalo, marsh crocodile and rhino.
5. Eco Tourism - Sundarban
Eco-tourism is a major component of the Sundarban Biodiversity Conservation Project. It comprises a range of integrated activities. These activities are part of the SBCP Sundarban Eco-Tourism Development and Management Plan prepared last year and presently being implemented. The development of eco-tourism in the Sundarban is one of the top priorities of the Forest Department and the SBCP. It forms part of the existing Government national objectives concerning existing and proposed tourism policies in Bangladesh.
The Eco-Tourism Development and Management Plan advises on legislation, tourism practices, structural changes, training and facilities requirements, environmental impact, and marketing and promotion strategies. It will contribute to the development of a healthy, responsible and sustainable type of eco-tourism for the benefit of all.
The Eco-tourism Plan consists of a range of activities that involve many of the different components of the SBCP project.
These activities will ultimately contribute to:
· The development and the improvement of eco-tourism policies
· The practice of responsible guidelines
· The compliance of new eco-tourism regulations
· The development of well planned limited infrastructure and facilities for visitors
· Capacity development and training of the Park Rangers and other forest department officials
· The training and assistance of tour operators in specialised topics
· The development, marketing, promotion and positioning of the SRF as a new and alternative world-class eco-tourism destination.
Eco-tourism in the Sundarban already exists on a limited basis. In the SBCP it has also been identified as a tool to promote conservation, for environmental awareness and education of all stakeholders and for the enjoyment of nature for both international and domestic visitors.
Eco-tourism will provide an important alternative source of revenue for the funding of Forest Department environmental and conservation initiatives. It will generate funds for the protected areas as well as the creation of new employment opportunities and local enterprises of the surrounding communities in the impact zone.
Although generally it has been said that tourism in Bangladesh suffers from a poor image, eco-tourism potential on the contrary is rated high. Presently it is in a very early but promising stage of development.
Potential for eco-tourism in the Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF) lies in the fact that the total area is large and that its boundaries have been fully protected by the Forest Department for many years; permanent settlements of individuals and encroachments are not allowed in the forest. This constitutes a solid base and a good starting point for good planning, development and management of responsible eco-tourism in one of the most interesting mangrove forest areas of the world, where the wilderness value is pronounced.
The Sundarban hosts one of the most spectacular and strongest predators of the world, the Royal Bengal Tiger. The probability to spot one of the hundreds of them that roam the forest area is less than the probability that the tiger detects you first, but the forest is full of pugmarks.
Many tigers have been spotted by visitors this year, perhaps a sign of early population recuperation due to recent conservation efforts by the Forest Department. It is estimated that the Sundarban provides a habitat for more than 450 animal species: 40 mammal species including 5 species of whales and dolphins, more than 270 different species of birds, 45 species of reptiles, 120 species of fish, including species of rare shark, and about 334 plant species; the counting is still going on. The SBCP has detected early in the project the reappearance of some species thought extinct or almost extinct and is presently conducting a range of scientific studies on some of these species and on other biodiversity subjects.
The main attractions of the Sundarban are for wildlife enthusiasts, the opportunity to sail in the solitude of wilderness through its hundreds of channels, to learn more about the tiger behaviour and the possibility to view this majestic creature on a sand bank or crossing a river or devouring its prey, to see an old Hindu temple in the middle of nowhere, to view estuarine and marsh crocodiles under the stars, and to learn more about the mangrove forest and its importance. Tourists can visit the local communities of the SRF impact zone, and appreciate the unimaginable methods of fish and shrimp harvesting and collection. Most important of all is to be here, away from it all at the location of one of the most spectacular natural phenomena of the world, the Bengal Delta ending in the Indian Ocean.
The most important eco-tourism activities planned for the SBCP are the following:
1. Establishment of an Information and Education Centre in Khulna for both the international and domestic visitors to the SRF
2. Establishment of a Mangrove Interpretation and Visitor Centre in Karamjal, at the boundary of the SRF
3. Putting into practice the first Code of Ethics and Conduct for visitors to the Sundarban
4. Licensing of tour operators conducting eco-tourism operations in the Sundarban
5. Promotion and enforcement of the first Tour Operators Eco-tourism nature guidelines
6. Production of wildlife and eco-tourism videos for educational purposes, environmental awareness and promotion and marketing
7. Publication of a Sundarban wildlife photography book
8. Organisation of the first Sundarban international photography contest
9. Production of promotional material and sales promotion for education, environmental awareness and marketing of eco-tourism
10. Assistance to the eco-tourism industry in the opening of new Sundarban eco-tourism web pages
11. In-house specialised training for the Forest Department personnel, in particular information officers, Park Rangers and front line staff at management and operations levels dealing directly with the public
12. Courses and workshops for the tourism industry, especially tour operators operating or planning to operate in the Sundarban
13. Specialised courses to the private tourism industry on topics like product development, tour guiding and opening of new markets
14. Public relations at international forums and exposure to specialised tourism trade shows
15. The organisation of familiarisation trips for specialised international tour operators and conservation agencies that conduct eco-tourism programs
16. Identification and promotion of local craft products from micro-enterprises of the impact zone
17. Organisation of an international eco-tourism conference on the Sundarban
18. Assistance to tour operators in technical matters, and in their cooperative promotion and marketing
19. Assistance and coordination of activities with the Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation
20. Encouraging to increase the current boat carrying capacity in the Sundarban for low-impact river based eco-tourism
21. Under certain guidelines, promotion of the use of certain types of small boats restricted to certain channels to enhance the quality of the total eco-tourism product and the total travel experience
Eco-tourism requires the active participation and feedback of all its stakeholders at all stages of development and the Sundarban Reserve Forest belongs to all of us.
For visitors, officials, planners, developers or managers, preserving the SRF for future generations is your responsibility.
The Sundarbans , claimed to be the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world, lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India, forming the seaward fringe of the delta. The forest covers 10,000 sqkm of which about 6,000 are in Bangladesh. It got inscripted as a UNESCO world heritage site in 1997; but while the Bangladeshi and Indian portions constitute the same continuous ecotope, these are separately listed in the UNESCO world heritage list as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengal Tiger, as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. It is estimated that there are now 500 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.
Etymology
"Sundarban" literally means "beautiful jungle" or "beautiful forest" in the Bengali language. The name Sundarbans may also have been derived from the Sundari trees that are found in Sundarbans in large numbers. Other possible explanations can be a derivation from "Samudra Ban" (Sea Forest) or "Chandra-bandhe" (name of a primitive tribe). But the generally accepted view is the one associated with Sundari trees.
History
During the Mughal period (1203-1538), the local kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans out. The history of changes in legal status boasts a number of unique features including the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management. The area was mapped by the Surveyor General as early as 1764 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor, Alamgir II, by the East India Company in 1757. Systematic management of this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of Bengal, in India.
The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. The Sundarbans was declared a reserved forest in 1875-76, under the Forest Act, 1965 (Act VIII of 1965). The first management plan was written for the period 1893-98. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of forests was declared as reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far was administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarter in Khulna.
In 1911, it was described as a tract of waste country which had never been surveyed, nor had the census been extended to it. It then stretched for about 165 miles (266 km) from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna, and was bordered inland by the three settled districts of the Twenty-four Parganas, Khulna and Backergunje. The total area (including water) was estimated at 6,526 square miles (16,902 km²). It was a water-logged jungle, in which tigers and other wild beasts abounded. Attempts at reclamation had not been very successful. The characteristic tree was the Sundari (Heritiera littoralis), from which the name of the tract had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building, and for making boats, furniture, etc. The Sundarbans were everywhere intersected by river channels and creeks, some of which afforded water communication between Kolkata and the Brahmaputra valley, both for steamers and for native boats.
Physiography
This satellite image shows the forest in the protected area. The Sundarbans appears deep green, surrounded to the north by a landscape of agricultural lands, which appear lighter green, towns, which appear tan, and streams, which are blue.
The mangrove-dominated Ganges delta – the Sundarbans - is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tract of mangrove forests of the world. Shared between two neighboring countries, Bangladesh and India, the larger part (62%)is situated in the southwest corner of Bangladesh. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 sq km. Now it has dwindled to about 1/3 of the original size. The total land area today is 4,143 km² (including exposed sandbars: 42 km²) and the remaining water area of 1,874 km² encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal (Wahid et al.. 2002).
The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 m to 2.11 m above sea level.
Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed including beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays an important role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers and grasses and sedges stabilizes sand dunes and uncompacted sediments.
Climate change impact
The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon. These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change.
In many of the Indian mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the late 19th century due to diversion of freshwater in the upstream area. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east due to neo-tectonic movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian Sundarbans. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-cm rise in sea level (likely by the end of the twenty-first century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75% of the Sundarbans mangroves.
Flora
Sundari tree
The Sundarbans flora is characterized by the abundance of Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops decandra and Sonneratia apetala. A total 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by Prain in 1903. Since Prain’s report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora. However, very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Whilst most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterized by members of the Rhizophoraceae, Avicenneaceae or Laganculariaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Sterculiaceae and Euphorbiaceae.
The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest and upland forests associations. Unlike the former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation. The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres, comprising primary colonization on new accretions to more mature beach forests, often conspicuously dominated by Keora (Sonneratia apetala) and tidal forests. Historically three principal vegetation types have been recognized in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography and which are represented in the wildlife sanctuaries:
Sundari and Gewa occur prominently throughout the area with discontinuous distribution of Dhundul (Xylocarpus granatum) and Kankra. Among grasses and Palms, Poresia coaractata, Myriostachya wightiana, Imperata cylindrica, Phragmites karka, Nypa fruticans are well distributed. Keora is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer (Axis axis). Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of brakish and freshwater marshes, intertidal mudflats, sandflats, sand dunes with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees.
Succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone. Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil.
The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted site is Sonneratia, followed by Avicennia and Nypa. As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is Excoecaria. As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear.
Fauna
Chitals are widely seen in the Sunderbans
The Sundarbans is very rich in wildlife. However the management of wildlife is presently restricted to the protection of fauna from poaching and designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and the wildlife face few disturbance. Although it is clear that the faunal resource of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition of wildlife and its management. The Sundarbans are home to approximately 500 Bengal Tigers as of 2004, one of the largest single population of tigers.
Blue-eared Kingfisher sighted in the Sundarbans.
The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and extensive habitats for wildlife. A human interface in the Sundarbans in terms of resource extraction and forest management has important effects on wildlife habitats and populations. The river terrapin (Betagur baska), Indian flap-shelled turtle (Lissemys punctata), peacock soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx hurum), yellow monitor (Varanus flavescens), water monitor (Varanus salvator), Indian python (Python molurus) and the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) are some of the resident species. Some of these species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). Some species such as hog deer (Axis procinus), water buffalo (Bubalis bubalis), swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli), Javan rhinoceros (Rhiniceros sondaicus), single horned rhiniceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) and the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) have become extinct in the Sundarbans at the beginning of this century.
A crocodile at Sundarbans.
Recent studies revealed that the Bangladesh Sundarbans support diverse biological resources including at least 120 species of commercially important fishes, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and eight amphibian species. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes a large number of species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Of these wildlife, Sarker has noted that two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are presently endangered. The Sundarbans is a paradise for the ornithologists for watching, study and research on avifauna.
Man-eating Tigers
The Sundarbans are home to approximately 500 Bengal Tigers as of 2004, one of the largest single population of tigers. These tigers are well-known for the substantial number of people they kill; estimates range from 100-250 people per year. They are not the only tigers who live in close proximity to humans. In Bandhavgarh, villages encircle the tiger reserves, and yet attacks on people are rare.
A Royal Bengal tiger
The locals and government officials take certain precautions to prevent attacks. Local fishermen will say prayers and perform rituals to the forest goddess, Bonbibi, before setting out on expeditions. Invocations to the tiger god Dakshin Ray (pronounced "DOCK-shun ROY") are also considered a necessity by the local populace for safe passage throughout the Sundarbans area. Fishermen and bushmen make facial masks to wear on the back of their heads, because tigers always attack from behind. This worked for a short time, but the tigers quickly realized it was a hoax, and the attacks continued. Government officials wear stiff pads that rise up the back of the neck, similar to the pads of an American football player. This is to prevent the tigers from biting into the spine, which is their favored attack method.
There are several speculated causes as to why these tigers maul humans:
Since the Sundarbans is located in a coastal area, the water is relatively salty. In all other habitats, tigers drink fresh water. It is rumored that the saltiness of the tiger's water in this area has put them in a state of constant discomfort, leading them to be extremely aggressive. Freshwater lakes have been artificially made but to no avail.
The high tides in the area destroy the tiger's scents which serve as territorial markers. Thus, the only way for a tiger to defend its territory is to physically dominate everything that enters.
Another possibility is that these tigers have grown used to human flesh due to the weather. Typhoons in this part of India and Bangladesh kill thousands, and the bodies drift out in to the swampy waters, where tigers scavenge on them.
Another possibility is that the tigers find hunting animals difficult due to the continuous high and low tides making the area marsh-like and slippery. Humans travel through the Sundarbans on boats gathering honey and fishing, making an easy or accessible prey. It is also believed that when a person stops to work, the tiger mistakes them for an animal, and has, over time, acquired a 'taste' for the human flesh.
It has also been hypothesized that the tigers in this area, due to their secluded habitat, avoided the brunt of the hunting sprees that occurred over the course of the 20th century. Tigers inhabiting the rest of Asia developed a fear of humans after these events, but tigers in the Sundarbans would never have had reason to stop seeing humans as a prey item.
Economy
Fishing boat in the Sundarbans
The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation.
The Sundarbans play an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest provides raw material for wood based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large scale harvest of non wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey, bees-wax, fish, crustacean and mollusk resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans also function as an essential habitat, nutrient producer, water purifier, nutrient and sediment trap, storm barrier, shore stabilizer, energy storage unit and aesthetic attraction.
The forest also has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country (FAO 1995). A number of industries (e.g. newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on the raw material obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Various non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income generation opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal population. Besides production functions of the forest, it provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclone prone Bangladesh.
Despite human habitations and economic exploitation of the forest, Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1985.
Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species — sundri (Heritiera fomes} and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha} — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983 (Forestal 1960 and ODA 1985). Also, despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there appears to be a pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile this century), and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining" (IUCN 1994).
Sanctuaries in Bangladesh
The Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 sq km, of which about 1,700 sq km is occupied by waterbodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several kilometers. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai, Sarankhola, Khulna and Burigoalini and has 16 forest stations. It is further divided into 55 compartments and 9 blocks.
A new Khulna Forest Circle to preserve the forest was created in 1993 and a Conservator of Forests has been posted. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer who is also based at Khulna. The Divisional Forest Officer has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rives, canals and creeks.
There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). These are:
Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 31,227 ha. Freshwater and Sundri (Heritiera fomes) dominate interspersed with Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) and Passur (Xylocarpus mekongensis) with Kankra (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is a understory of Shingra (Cynometra ramiflora) where, soils are drier and Amur (Amoora cucullata) in wetter areas and Goran (Ceriops decandra) in more saline places. Nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) widespread along drainage lines.
Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 36,970 ha. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran and sometimes Passur.
Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 71,502 ha. Includes areas which support sparse Gewa and dense stands of Goran and discontinuous patches of Hantal palm (Phoenix paludosa) on drier ground and river banks and levees.
Resources of Sundarban
1.Forest Resources of Sundarban
Location and history
The Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF), occupying an area of around 6,017 square kilometres or 600,000 hectares, represents 51 percent of the total reserved forest area of Bangladesh and as such forms a rich and diverse ecosystem with potential for sustainable natural resource management. Man has exploited the Sundarban for centuries but the forest was not given Reserve status by the Forestry Department until 1875. Since that time the Forest Department has managed the forest and other natural resources of the SRF through adherence to management plans which it prepares at regular intervals.
Early management simply concentrated on revenue collection and the enforcement of felling rules to reduce overcutting, particularly in the eastern portion. The first real professional forest management planning was introduced in the SRF in the early 1900s with the introduction of the Curtis Working Plan.
However, more recently forest resource management has shifted to increase emphasis upon environmental and socio-economic issues.
The following table presents the fractions represented by forest and other land types in the Sundarban.
Areas in Sundarban
Type
Area (km2)
Percent
Forest area
3997
66
Sandbars, grass, bare ground
115
2
Rivers
1905
32
Total SRF (of which 1397 km2 represented by 3 wildlife sanctuaries)
6017
100
Source: Forest Resources Management Project 1998 (modified)
Forest Resources
The forest resource is defined as wood materials such as timber and fuelwood. Other products such as leaves, bark, and other associated non-woody plants are covered in the web page dealing with Non-Wood Forest Products.
The area of forest represented by the principal timber species is of interest for forest managers. The table below indicates the areas of forest types and is based upon stratification undertaken by ODA and refined using digitised information from satellite imagery (SPOT 1989) and aerial photography (1995).
Although the overall area of forest in the SRF is known, the crucial question is what is the volume by species, what is the growth rate and is the extraction exceeding the growth? This sustainability question is partially answered through reference to the results of various forest inventories.
Forest Sustainability
The results of four independent inventories undertaken over the past seventy years would seem to indicate that the overall volume per hectare has decreased. Moreover, closer analysis of three inventories undertaken in 1959, 1983 and 1996 indicate a marked reduction in total standing volume (expressed in millions of cubic metres) for the two principal species of economic importance, Sundri and Gewa. The following table highlights the dramatic decrease.
The reasons for the decline in Sundri, Heriteria fomes is twofold. First, as a valuable timber species with real commercial value, it has been subject to heavy exploitation, both legal and illegal. Second, subtle changes in the ecology of the area, notably increases in salinity and siltation have resulted in hostile anaerobic conditions in which the Sundri finds difficulty in healthy respiration. This has resulted in dieback whereby the tree is progressively defoliated from the top downwards.
The decline in Gewa, Excoecaria agallocha is largely attributable to harvesting of around 50,000 m3 per annum as feedstock to Khulna Newsprint Mill for the production of newsprint. Although the mill is scheduled to close, one line continues to operate.
In recognition of the importance to manage the forest resources in the SRF on a sustainable basis, the Forest Department imposed a logging moratorium in 1989 on all timber species except Gewa. Diseased Sundri is felled and cleared as part of a sanitation programme and of course illegal logging by fishermen and other collectors continues to have an impact.
Summary
In summary it can be said that the SRF has been well managed by the Forest Department for over a hundred years and represents one of the very few areas in the world where resource exploitation is controlled through strict enforcement. Although some illegal logging occurs, there is no evidence of encroachment or settlement within the Reserve and this is due to the vigilance of the Forest Department and respect for the Royal Bengal Tiger which is a renowned predator. This is a unique situation in the developing world. The three Wildlife Sanctuaries, declared as World Heritage Sites in December 1997, remain fully protected. However, when the forest resources within the SRF have recovered, the area can and should continue to provide goods and services to the people of Bangladesh as well as revenue to pay for careful management of the environment. Future sustainability of the Sundarban will be contingent upon political will, environmental awareness and the continued support from the Forest Department as custodians of the resources.
2.Aquatic Resources in Sundarban
The primary goal of the Aquatic Resource Programme is to put into place an effective management system for the aquatic biodiversity (fishes, crustaceans and molluscs) of the Sundarban, which will both protect vulnerable species and allow sustainable harvesting of fish resources over the long term.
The Fisheries Management System will be based on two major components:
1. Building of a competent fisheries administration within the Sundarban Management Unit of the Forest Department (i.e. the Aquatic Resources Division)
2. Mobilisation of fishermen to participate in fisheries resource management.
The Fisheries Management System is now beginning implementation. For example, a comprehensive one-year fisheries research and stock assessment study has been contracted out to Khulna University and is currently being implemented. The Aquatic Resource Division has conducted various filed studies and assembled a substantial collection of fish specimens. These are undergoing study. A particularly important finding is the discovery of very rare shark species of the genus Glyphis in Sundarbans waters.
3.Non-Wood Forest Products - Sundarban
Non-wood forest products (NWFP) from the Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF) play a major role in the lives of hundreds of thousands of people who live near its boundaries. These products are harvested for both subsistence and commercial purposes and represent an important source of income for land-poor families, especially during the winter months of food deficit.
Non-wood forest products (NWFP's) refer to all non-ligneous plant materialsnaturally occurring in forests and other wildland areas that are utilised by humans
Golpata (Nypa fruticans) is a regal palm that grows in monotypic stands along the banks of the numerous rivers and canals that bisect the dense mangrove forests of the Sundarban. It is by far the most important NWFP in the region. Every year, from December to May, thousands of "bawalis" (traditional forest users) collect an average of 60,000 metric tons of fronds from throughout the SRF. This number, however, could be a fraction of the actual amount harvested. The fronds are sold at several trade depots in the adjoining districts and used as a traditional roofing material throughout the country. The fruits are used to make a local wine.
Other species are important as well. Hantal (Phoenix paludosa) is a palm used in construction as rafters and framework. It is not as popular as golpata and is harvested in much smaller quantities at an average of 3000 metric tons per year. An average of 3000 metric tons of a variety of grasses are annually harvested from the SRF as well. This includes malia (Cyperus javanicus), nal (Eriochlea procera) and ulu (Imperata cylindrica). Malia is used for making mats, nal for making baskets and fences, and ulu for thatch.
Goals/Approach of the NWFP Component
Our initial assessment indicates that there appears to be no outstanding sustainability issues for NWFP’s in the SRF, although some stands/populations have reportedly been degraded from intensive and/or improper harvesting. From a biodiversity conservation perspective, it is the secondary impacts of NWFP harvesting that represent the greater threat. Simply having more people in the forest for protracted periods of time can be disruptive and offers opportunities for poaching and other types of destructive behaviour. Large-scale harvesting can also lead to bank erosion and habitat degradation of fish, amphibians, crustaceans and other riparian fauna. At present, however, we do not completely understand the role of NWFP’s in the ecology of the Sundarban.
The crucial issue is that there are no viable income alternatives for the hundreds of thousands of poor people who live around the SRF and are almost totally dependent on its resources, including NWFP’s. Thus, the long-term goal of the NWFP component echoes that of SBCP: to improve the livelihoods of impoverished users by introducing viable economic activities outside of the SRF. In doing so, it is hoped that the overall pressure on the SRF will be reduced and the forest, wildlife and environmental services it provides will be preserved. Knowing that this can take several years - in fact, decades - to accomplish, the short-term strategy is to:
· Evaluate the effectiveness of current Forest Department management practices and recommend changes, if necessary.
· Identify value-addition opportunities for species currently harvested on a sustainable basis in order to bring greater economic benefits to the impoverished communities in the area.
· Identify and restore degraded stands of important NWFP’s inside the SRF.
· Search for areas outside the SRF to produce golpata and other non-wood species in a more intensive and accessible fashion through community and private forestry programs.
· Investigate viable income and livelihood alternatives based outside the SRF for those directly engaged in NWFP harvesting.
4.Wildlife - Sundarban
Protection Status of the Sundarban
The Sundarban Forest covers 10,000 km2 of mangrove forest west of the main outflow of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Malancha rivers. Around 60 % of this area is part of Bangladesh territory and entirely gazetted Forest Reserve, which was a phased process starting in 1885. The remaining 40 % is part of India. Within the Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF). 3 Wildlife Sanctuaries were established in 1974 under the Bangladesh Wildlife Act of the same year. Around the SRF the Sundarban Biodiversity Conservation Project has identified a so-called "Impact Zone" where most of the direct users of the forest are residing.
Significance of the Sundarban biodiversity
The Sundarban ecosystem is characterised by a very dynamic environment due to the effect of tide, flooding, salinity and cyclones. As a result several remarkable species are found such as estuarine crocodile (Crocodilus porosus), spotted deer (Axis axis), dolphins (Platanista gangetica, Orcaella brevirostris, Peponocephala electra, Neophocaena phocaenoides), marine turtles (Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, Lepidochelys olivacea and Dermochelys coriacea) and, the flagship species, the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris).
The biodiversity is represented by the following taxonomic groups:
§ over 40 mammal species
§ over 270 bird species
§ over 45 reptile species
§ at least 11 amphibian species
§ over 120 fish species
§ an unknown number of invertebrates
§ more than 330 plant species
The Sundarban tiger population is supposed to be the largest surviving tiger population in the world. Estimates of the number of tigers in the Bangladesh Sundarban vary between 300 and 400. The estimates for the deer in this area are 50-80,000, for wild boar 20,000, smooth Indian otter (Lutra perspicillata) 20,000 and rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) 40,000 to 70,000.
The colourful bird life along the waterways includes species such as kingfishers (9 species), raptors (38 species), herons, egrets, storks, sandpipers, whimbrel, curlew, gulls, terns, woodpeckers, barbets, shrikes, drongosa, mynahs, minivets, babblers and many others. Lucky birders may catch a glimpse of masket finfoot (Heliopais personata).
Threats
The SRF is surrounded by a very densely populated area, therefore human pressure is important. Around 1.2 million local users reside seasonally in the area for fishing and other resource use activities. Commercial hunting was a problem mainly before the 1970s and this resulted particularly in a serious depletion of the crocodile populations and to a lesser extent to the deer population. Although the protection has improved significantly in the last decades, illegal hunting is still occurring on an incidental basis and fishery is having an adverse impact on the populations of the remaining turtle and crocodile populations as these animals drown frequently in fishing nets.Due to natural processes the role of the Sundarban to discharge the water of the Ganges and Brahmaputra catchment is decreasing as main waterways are shifting eastwards. As a result the salinity of the Sundarban is increasing, particularly in the western region. Further, the total annual discharge is decreasing due to intensifying land use (dams, irrigation) upstream. The role of this change is not yet clear, but is evident that it will influence wildlife populations and vegetation in the long term.However, the main threat today may come from outside the area in the form of pollution. On the northern edge of the area, Mongla, Bangladesh’ second largest port, is situated. This port and its associated marine traffic is a frequent source of oil spills and there is a permanent risk of accidents with chemicals. Moreover, toxic products (pesticides, etc.) enter the system due to upstream pollution in the huge Ganges catchment. Pollution may be a direct source of mortality, but it may also reduce the health, increasing the mortality rate on the long term. Many products such as pesticides have also been proved to reduce the reproductivity (birth rate) in animal populations.A future threat is the exploitation of mineral gas, which is abundant in the underground of the Sundarban.Some species extinct during the last century are:javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)swamp deer (Cervus duvauceli)gaur (Bos gaurus)hog deer (Axis porcinus)marsh crocodile (Crocodilus palustris)
SBCP Wildlife component
The SBCP Wildlife components involves:
1. the initiation and support of a number of studies and surveys
2. the elaboration of an integrated wildlife management plan
Studies and surveys
(1) Tiger
Although the tiger population is the largest in the world, it numbers only several hundred individuals and it is isolated from other populations. Incidental mortality due to disease, sudden prey decrease or pollution constitutes, therefore, a serious risk for the survival of the Sundarban tiger. Apart from that, the interaction with humans in the area, particularly the killing of humans by tiger, complicates the management of the area. Careful scientifically based management is therefore required for appropriate conservation of this species. Research regarding tiger will focus on population size and dynamics, distribution and tiger - human conflicts.
(2) Deer
Deer is the most important herbivore in terms of number and biomass (1150 kg/km2) and deer grazing and browsing is a main factor in the structure of the vegetation cover. Moreover, deer is the main prey of the Sundarban tiger. Deer research will focus therefore on: the distribution, habitat utilisation, food availability, drinking water dependency, the impact of grazing/browsing, and population dynamics.
(3) Other surveys and studies
Other surveys and studies that will be carried out by SBCP include marine mammals, birds, crocodiles and turtles, providing essential information for management planning and monitoring. Additional studies on hunting and vegetation will be carried out.
Management
The principal goal will be to insert wildlife management into the current management system that focuses mainly on utilisation of other resources, particularly forestry, but also fishery and non-wood forest products. This requires institutional changes in the Forest Department, which is responsible for the management of the area, training and equipping of its staff, a revised policy, and up to date legislation which is enforceable. A new management plan will follow an integrated approach involving all sectors.The management plan will address the management of habitat, for example the location of freshwater drinking ponds (to respond to increasing salinity) and maintenance of the grasslands that are crucial for deer. Nesting species such as crocodiles and turtles need extra protection. For crocodiles a restocking programme, including rearing, is in process.The current zoning of the area will be reviewed. Appropriate zoning is crucial for a sufficient representation of ecological zones, protection of specific key habitats such as nesting sites, ecological infrastructure and management of other uses (e.g. fisheries, tourism, non-wood forest products). A proposal is in process for a new sanctuary in the fresh water zone in the north of the SRF in order to represent the fresh water habitat as well in the protected area system. This zone may be appropriate for the reintroduction of buffalo, marsh crocodile and rhino.
5. Eco Tourism - Sundarban
Eco-tourism is a major component of the Sundarban Biodiversity Conservation Project. It comprises a range of integrated activities. These activities are part of the SBCP Sundarban Eco-Tourism Development and Management Plan prepared last year and presently being implemented. The development of eco-tourism in the Sundarban is one of the top priorities of the Forest Department and the SBCP. It forms part of the existing Government national objectives concerning existing and proposed tourism policies in Bangladesh.
The Eco-Tourism Development and Management Plan advises on legislation, tourism practices, structural changes, training and facilities requirements, environmental impact, and marketing and promotion strategies. It will contribute to the development of a healthy, responsible and sustainable type of eco-tourism for the benefit of all.
The Eco-tourism Plan consists of a range of activities that involve many of the different components of the SBCP project.
These activities will ultimately contribute to:
· The development and the improvement of eco-tourism policies
· The practice of responsible guidelines
· The compliance of new eco-tourism regulations
· The development of well planned limited infrastructure and facilities for visitors
· Capacity development and training of the Park Rangers and other forest department officials
· The training and assistance of tour operators in specialised topics
· The development, marketing, promotion and positioning of the SRF as a new and alternative world-class eco-tourism destination.
Eco-tourism in the Sundarban already exists on a limited basis. In the SBCP it has also been identified as a tool to promote conservation, for environmental awareness and education of all stakeholders and for the enjoyment of nature for both international and domestic visitors.
Eco-tourism will provide an important alternative source of revenue for the funding of Forest Department environmental and conservation initiatives. It will generate funds for the protected areas as well as the creation of new employment opportunities and local enterprises of the surrounding communities in the impact zone.
Although generally it has been said that tourism in Bangladesh suffers from a poor image, eco-tourism potential on the contrary is rated high. Presently it is in a very early but promising stage of development.
Potential for eco-tourism in the Sundarban Reserved Forest (SRF) lies in the fact that the total area is large and that its boundaries have been fully protected by the Forest Department for many years; permanent settlements of individuals and encroachments are not allowed in the forest. This constitutes a solid base and a good starting point for good planning, development and management of responsible eco-tourism in one of the most interesting mangrove forest areas of the world, where the wilderness value is pronounced.
The Sundarban hosts one of the most spectacular and strongest predators of the world, the Royal Bengal Tiger. The probability to spot one of the hundreds of them that roam the forest area is less than the probability that the tiger detects you first, but the forest is full of pugmarks.
Many tigers have been spotted by visitors this year, perhaps a sign of early population recuperation due to recent conservation efforts by the Forest Department. It is estimated that the Sundarban provides a habitat for more than 450 animal species: 40 mammal species including 5 species of whales and dolphins, more than 270 different species of birds, 45 species of reptiles, 120 species of fish, including species of rare shark, and about 334 plant species; the counting is still going on. The SBCP has detected early in the project the reappearance of some species thought extinct or almost extinct and is presently conducting a range of scientific studies on some of these species and on other biodiversity subjects.
The main attractions of the Sundarban are for wildlife enthusiasts, the opportunity to sail in the solitude of wilderness through its hundreds of channels, to learn more about the tiger behaviour and the possibility to view this majestic creature on a sand bank or crossing a river or devouring its prey, to see an old Hindu temple in the middle of nowhere, to view estuarine and marsh crocodiles under the stars, and to learn more about the mangrove forest and its importance. Tourists can visit the local communities of the SRF impact zone, and appreciate the unimaginable methods of fish and shrimp harvesting and collection. Most important of all is to be here, away from it all at the location of one of the most spectacular natural phenomena of the world, the Bengal Delta ending in the Indian Ocean.
The most important eco-tourism activities planned for the SBCP are the following:
1. Establishment of an Information and Education Centre in Khulna for both the international and domestic visitors to the SRF
2. Establishment of a Mangrove Interpretation and Visitor Centre in Karamjal, at the boundary of the SRF
3. Putting into practice the first Code of Ethics and Conduct for visitors to the Sundarban
4. Licensing of tour operators conducting eco-tourism operations in the Sundarban
5. Promotion and enforcement of the first Tour Operators Eco-tourism nature guidelines
6. Production of wildlife and eco-tourism videos for educational purposes, environmental awareness and promotion and marketing
7. Publication of a Sundarban wildlife photography book
8. Organisation of the first Sundarban international photography contest
9. Production of promotional material and sales promotion for education, environmental awareness and marketing of eco-tourism
10. Assistance to the eco-tourism industry in the opening of new Sundarban eco-tourism web pages
11. In-house specialised training for the Forest Department personnel, in particular information officers, Park Rangers and front line staff at management and operations levels dealing directly with the public
12. Courses and workshops for the tourism industry, especially tour operators operating or planning to operate in the Sundarban
13. Specialised courses to the private tourism industry on topics like product development, tour guiding and opening of new markets
14. Public relations at international forums and exposure to specialised tourism trade shows
15. The organisation of familiarisation trips for specialised international tour operators and conservation agencies that conduct eco-tourism programs
16. Identification and promotion of local craft products from micro-enterprises of the impact zone
17. Organisation of an international eco-tourism conference on the Sundarban
18. Assistance to tour operators in technical matters, and in their cooperative promotion and marketing
19. Assistance and coordination of activities with the Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation
20. Encouraging to increase the current boat carrying capacity in the Sundarban for low-impact river based eco-tourism
21. Under certain guidelines, promotion of the use of certain types of small boats restricted to certain channels to enhance the quality of the total eco-tourism product and the total travel experience
Eco-tourism requires the active participation and feedback of all its stakeholders at all stages of development and the Sundarban Reserve Forest belongs to all of us.
For visitors, officials, planners, developers or managers, preserving the SRF for future generations is your responsibility.
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