RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION
Discussion on this subject area was based on two theme papers and twosatellite papers (see Appendix 4.3). The resource persons, Dr. Mauro Reis and Prof. Herman Haeruman, introduced the subject and presented their theme papers "Resource Development for Non-Wood Forest Products" and "Environmental Dimensions of Non-Wood Forest Products", respectively.
Socio-economic benefits, processing and product development for value addition and increased gains through marketing of NWFPs are all conditional to the availability, integrity and stability of forest resources as well as their sound and sustainable management. Plants and animals providing NWFPs to a great extent represent the biological wealth and variety of forests. Their conservation is part of a much wider and fundamental concern, and is aninvestment towards sustainable development.
More than 80 percent of the plant species providing NWFPs occur in the tropical forests of Asia, Africa and the Americas. Tropical forests are
ecologically complex and biologically diverse ecosystems and provide for a variety of human needs. This fact has two implications:
- These forests should be managed for multiple uses to benefit from their great variety of products and services;
- They should be managed with ecological sustainability as an explicit and prominent objective, because their complex interdependencies make them vulnerable to irreversible degradation.
The Consultation considered the various aspects of sustainably managing the flora and fauna of the different forest ecosystems.
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Forest Resource Inventory
There is a general absence of inventory of NWFPs, and their planning often lacks scientific basis. The extent of variation in the nature, quality, characteristics and uses of the products compounds the problem. An assessment of resources by appropriate categories and a detailed prospecting for specific products (e.g. phytochemicals) in selected priority areas is an essential step. This will help to identify candidate species and suitable areas to be developed
for specific products. This will in addition serve as a sound basis for
planning.
Most flora and fauna, providing NWFPs are found in the primary forests. Some of them can only thrive within natural habitat and do not lend themselves to domestication. Those plant species that can be grown in plantations, or as pure or mixed corps, are heavily dependant on regular infusion of germplasm from wild gene reservoirs. Only the continued existence of species variability in the wild will afford plant breeders a better chance for creating new disease-resisting and high-yielding varieties for the future. Thus the genetic wealth and variability are crucial for future development of NWFPs.
From the management perspective, a sustainable system is one from which various products can be harvested on a predictable basis. This requires thorough knowledge of the forest resource.
The Consultation underlined the need to enlarge the scope of forest resources assessment and the need to develop appropriate methods. Inventories need to
consider the dynamics of forest-human relationships, and not to be simple static
gauges. This would involve, in addition to inventory of wood resources, detailed
investigation and prospecting of non-wood forest resources for fibre,
phytochemicals, aromatics, gums, resins, etc. Only a small percentage of species
have been examined for their attributes and uses. Work involved in scientific
screening of forest resources for valuable ingredients is enormous. These
investigations have to consider the nature and extent of distribution of
specific plant resources, their density of occurrence, their potential
yield/supply from wild sources, their suitability to be grown under
multi-species environment (e.g. enrichment planting under natural forest cover
and agroforestry) or under monoculture. Traditional knowledge and ethno-biology
can contribute to provide indications of how to proceed for developing NWFPs.
Full inventories are costly and require multidisciplinary field teams and
research support. They can provide decision-makers with a valuable insight about
the potentials of sustainable forest management. This is an area which deserves
financial support from the Global Environmental Facility.
| Inventorying forests with local practices: Nicaragua In the Si-a-Paz, or International Peace Park, uniting Nicaragua and Costa For comparison, local forest management practices are being studied using The study to date shows that the variety of useful plant resources is Summarised from Jan Salick, 1992. The sustainable management of |
Key questions that forest inventories should address include: What NWFP
resources are available in the management area? What are their ecological,
biological and chemical characteristics? What products can they produce? How
abundant are they, and what is their capacity for regeneration? What are the
social and cultural values associated with their use? The criteria and
techniques for measuring these factors currently used in forestry are
insufficient for NWFPs since conventional forestry methods were developed for
assessing only timber.
Inventories are important not only for humid tropical forests, but also for
other systems. In the fragile semi-arid and arid systems, gauging yield capacity
is especially important and requires regular monitoring. Inventories in these
systems need to include yield characteristics of the resource base in years of
poor rainfall or drought.
Inventory to Include Fauna
Increasingly it must be recognised that forests consist of both flora and
fauna. Wildlife is particularly important to communities in Africa.
The diversity of forest insect life as well as micro-organisms are gaining
economic importance. The pharmaceutical industry is interested in forest insects
as sources of molecular and chemical compounds.
The Consultation heard an account of the activities of INBio (National
Biodiversity Institute of Costa Rica) on prospecting of biodiversity in
collaboration with Merck, a pharmaceutical company, involving inventory and
analysis of a number of forest plants, insects and micro-organisms for
biologically active compounds.
Forest Resource Management
Sustainable use and management of forests has emerged as a high priority in
the development agenda of nations. NWFPs are seen by many as an important key to
the management of forest resources in a sustainable way. Historically, the focus
of wood as the principal forest product is a development which was fostered by
industrial revolution. Return to a more balanced view of the variety of
products, wood and non-wood, which can sustainably be removed from well-managed
forests will be a significant improvement.
Under natural conditions, non-wood products can be managed along with wood in
an integrated manner, thus increasing overall productivity. Non-wood products
can be sustainably harvested without causing damage to the ecosystem and they
are therefore environmentally friendly. The Consultation noted that NWFPs often
are of a higher value per unit weight or volume. It has been reported that in
some Brazilian forests one tonne of non-wood products generates a monetary value
equivalent to that of 25 tonnes of wood. Under appropriate management schemes
they are compatible with the conservation of biological diversity. Overall,
non-wood products have strong linkages and complementarities with component
activities of environmentally sound and sustainable development.
Integrated multipurpose management of forest resources under a holistic
ecosystem approach for wood and non-wood products and benefits is an essential
strategy in many situations. Foresters have been developing and refining
silvicultural techniques of managing tropical forests for over 100 years. These
systems, however, have been specifically designed to maximize the production of
commercial timber. Silvicultural systems for enhancing the growth of non-wood
resources in forests such as wild fruits, edible nuts, mushrooms, gums and latex
which can be harvested non-destructively and in combination with timber, have
received much less attention. This is not to say that such systems are unknown
or do not exist. Many indigenous or other local communities in the tropics have
developed their own form of "silviculture" for managing their non-wood
resources. Such systems of forest management have been little studied, largely
because of the lack of economic interest in many non-wood resources, but also
due to the relative "invisibility" of these indigenous practices. Both
indigenous silvicultural practices and conventional forestry can contribute in
designing or improving systems for managing non-wood forest resources on a
sustainable basis.
The Consultation stressed that there is urgent need to develop proper
scientific and situation-specific management systems. Another and equally
important need is adequate institutional arrangements, considering that without
such arrangements commodity-based natural resource management, if solely left to
market forces, could lead to fast depletion of resources. It is necessary in
this connection to understand that: trees and plants yielding wood and non-wood
products can co-exist in the forests; many non-wood products are available from
timber species; harvesting of wood and non-wood products is not mutually
exclusive and needs to be carried out with great care; wood harvesting, if
improperly done, can be deleterious to production of NWFPs; and, production of
some non-wood products may substantially affect production of others. These
suggest the need for appropriately balanced and integrated systems of forest
management combining ecological and economic prudence. Planning in this regard
should take into consideration the limits of sustainable supply of goods and
services involved. Supply offered to the market can be so adjusted as to help
the achievement of conservation objectives, including conservation of plant
genetic resources.
In situ genetic conservation in areas with the greatest number of
plant varieties of known economic value, as well as of those with potential,
should be part of integrated forest management. The Consultation recognised that
it may often be a compatible objective of management to allow controlled
extraction of NWFPs from natural forests which are included as part of protected
area systems, especially in the buffer zones of protected areas.
Harvesting, the Weak Link
Harvesting as a process in the production and utilisation chain was
considered earlier under processing and marketing. It links resource management
with resource utilisation, and impacts on both.
Harvesting of NWFPs, of both wild and cultivated sources, is different from
wood harvest in terms of the use of tools and equipment, technology, pre-harvest
preparations, post-harvest treatment and requirement of intermediate processing.
Harvesting is particularly a weak link in the utilization of NWFPs due to the
variety of tools, techniques and situations involved. The existing systems do
not have adequate technological and management back-up. Poor harvesting results
in product wastages and resource damages. Efforts are also not made, usually, to
harmonize harvest of wood and non-wood products. Its linkage to a chain of
middlemen and traders is not conducive to sustainable resource use.
Some specific issues to be addressed in this regard are: compatibility of
resource management systems for different products, and the need for compromises
e.g. tapping of latex and the quality of timber from tapped trees; conflicts
likely to arise in situations where rights are separately assigned for
extracting wood and non-wood products; compatibility of certain harvests (e.g.
extracting tubers/roots) and services such as conservation of genetic resources
and watershed protection; and the minimum needs of forest-dependent communities
for NWFPs vs. commercial harvest.
The Consultation emphasised the need to develop and publish guidelines for
sustainable management and utilisation of NWFP resources. It further stressed
that the socio-economic and environmental dimensions of NWFPs need to be
included in the discussions defining the criteria and indicators for sustainable
forest management.
Species Domestication
The Consultation discussed the impact of species domestication. Some of the
plant species providing NWFPs can be grown as pure or mixed crops or under
agro-forestry systems. Over the years, several of them have moved up to the
status of intensively managed agricultural or horticultural corps (e.g. oil
palm, rubber, cashew, coffee, cocoa, pepper, etc.).
The objectives of natural resource conservation and protection of
biodiversity can be served at least partially by cultivation of species.
Domestication of wild plants yielding non-wood products, involving their genetic
improvement, and growing them under intensive cultivation practices is
considered as a means of ensuring efficiency in production. It has been the
experience that once a product achieves commercial importance, its supply from
wild sources tends to be replaced by cultivated sources with a view to bringing
production, quality and cost under control. Productivity of cultivated crops can
be enhanced through improved agro-technology. This would indirectly help to
support resource sustainability by facilitating conservation of genetic
resources in the natural forests. And, the domesticated species are dependant on
regular infusion of germplasm from wild genetic reservoirs for improving their
performance. Agro-forestry systems are particularly suitable for certain NWFPs (e.g
spices, aromatic plants) and for certain situations (such as land scarcity).
Development of NWFPs in agro-forestry systems has the advantage of diversifying
the economic base and enhancing the supply of products for household use, as
well as for markets.
It may, however, be noted that many plant and animal species cannot be grown
outside their forest habitat; and those grown in intensive crops will have
increased susceptibility to pests and diseases.
The decision on when, where and to what extent the production of NWFPs could
be linked to domesticated resource base would call for considerable research.
The domestication programmes should also recognize the community needs,
preferences and sensitivities.
Indigenous Knowledge
The Consultation pointed out that in respect of both natural and domesticated
resources, some of the indigenous systems of management provide interesting
possibilities. Study of several indigenous systems in Southeast Asia and South
America reveals several common characteristics: low-intensity management for a
variety of products; light canopy opening; enrichment planting of preferred
species; and selective thinning. In these, they resemble the current scientific
thinking on sustainable harvesting of NWFPs.
In some cases, indigenous groups have codified their land management systems.
For example, the Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of the Amazon Basin (COICA),
which consists of more than 400 indigenous organisations representing some four
million residents of the Amazon, has prepared a Plan for Amazon Conservation and
Development based on local systems. This plan considers NWFPs as a main element
in sustainable development.
Issues Relating to Sustainable Management of NWFP Resources
The Consultation discussed the various issues to be addressed in relation to
sustainable management of NWFP resources. Among them:
- Use of biological resources and emerging importance of biotechnologies;
the identification of potentially important drug producing plant resources,
the development of appropriate biotechnologies to tap these potentialities and
the related equity and environmental considerations.
This issue will remain highly sensitive for a long period to come and will
need the continuous attention of international organisations.
- Biodiversity inventories and information management (biological, taxonomic
and related information on living species and systems) to increase the value,
and improve the sustainable use, of raw biological resources and their
implications in terms of cost and know how.
- Role and importance of lower plants, insects and micro-organisms in the
forest ecosystem and their contributions to human welfare.
- The need to define and retain intellectual property rights on NWFP-based
discoveries and traditional knowledge, and to develop collaborative
arrangements between potential economic users and source communities and
countries, in order to guarantee profit-sharing (typically through royalties),
if commercial products are forthcoming as well to provide for adequate
technology transfer.
- The level and nature of interdependence between NWFP resources, native
wildlife and eco-tourism.
- The need for increased financial resources and improved technical
capabilities for managing NWFP resources.
- The need and scope of general and specific (e.g. for products, species)
guidelines for sustainable management of NWFP resources.
The Consultation took cognisance of the ITTO Guidelines for Sustainable
Forest Management, the briefing note on NWFPs prepared by FAO's Tropical Forests
Action Programme and the draft Manual for Local Planning of NTFP Development
prepared by Appropriate Technology International (ATI).
Collaboration agreement between INBio, Costa Rica and MERCK & Co., |
ENVIRONMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF NWFPs
The environmental dimensions of NWFPs cover a wide range of roles and aspects
such as: generally non-destructive nature of NWFP harvests supporting
sustainable management of forest resources and conservation of biodiversity;
their contributions to the socio-economic welfare of communities living in
uplands and watershed areas; their amenability to be integrated with the
management of protected areas and buffer zones and compatibility of management
objectives, allowing controlled extraction of NWFPs; eco-tourism and other
services which are environmentally sound and safe and which can generate income
especially in marginal areas and for local populations; intellectual property
and heritage values as well as intrinsic values of several NWFPs to the
communities and their cultural diversity; their intricate linkage to forest
biogeochemical cycles and food systems; their ability to incorporate both
economic and ecological objectives.
In order to take advantage of these environmental dimensions, it would
require considerable planning, investment and infrastructural development. For
example, potential for wildlife and nature-based tourism exists in most
countries, but the development of the potential is hampered by lack of financial
resources, skills and facilities.
It is the usual assumption that harvests of NWFPs are benign in environmental
terms. This is not always true. Unplanned harvest of NWFPs without adequate
knowledge about their resource base, appropriate tools and techniques to be
used, the regenerative capacity of species and their silvicultural requirements,
the seasonal variations in productivity, and the local subsistence demands, can
result in severe environmental damages. The Consultation emphasised that
capacity to determine optimum levels and methods of harvesting is very
important.
The lack of compatible forest management systems, combining ecological and
economic prudence, suited to the various situations encountered, do present
serious problems. And, the situation poses many challenges as we still know only
very little about the stand dynamics, ecology and silvicultural requirements of
many of the forest ecosystems, especially in the tropics. There are also the
traditional dilemmas encountered in balancing operational efficiency (cost of
production) with considerations of conservation in order to achieve
eco-efficiency. Apart from technological improvements, these it will call for
new arrangements of access, ownership, control and management, and a clear
understanding of the role of local people, management agencies, industry and
governments.
Sustainability has become a catch-all word, with different meanings to
different groups and in different situations. Ecological sustainability refers
to the continuing functions of ecological life support systems, in this case the
forest ecosystem. Economic sustainability, on the other hand, refers to
continuing functions that support economic growth. Particularly in planning NWFP
activities, these two forms of sustainability needs to be addressed and
harmonised.
The Consultation underlined that institutionalising sustainable NWFPs
development will require attention to: poverty alleviation, appropriate policies
and strategies, generation of scientific skills, balancing of techno-economic
systems with social value systems, and adequate financial instruments.
New Responses
New pressures on forest resources, and particularly those affecting NWFPs,
call for new responses. We need to know more about the behaviour of both the
ecosystems and social systems involved in NWFP activities; and we need to
understand the viability of production of NWFPs.
In terms of the responses by both social and natural systems to increasing
scarcity of forest resources, it is possible that increasing scarcity can lead
to technological innovation for more efficient management and harvesting, or to
substitution by other products. However, historical experience shows that the
time lag between resource depletion and such technological innovation can be
environmentally disastrous for complex systems like tropical forests. Likewise,
scarcity does not necessarily lead to substitution, as evidenced by the case of
rhinoceros horn, which, although extremely scarce, continue to be sought after,
threatening the survival of the species. Better environmental impact assessment
of existing technology and strategy will help to promote improvements and
innovations covering: research, education and extension for the development of
NWFPs; information gathering; statistical and accounting systems; community
participation; involvement of private sector; multidisciplinary approach to
resource management; exchange of experience and knowledge; regional and
sub-regional mechanisms to create centres of excellence.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations made by the Consultation relating to management and
conservation of NWFP resources and their larger environmental implications are
included in the Summary of Recommendations given in Section 6 of this report.
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