Palm-tree in Bangladesh

Palm-tree in Bangladesh

CHAPTER ONE

1.0. Introduction
1.1. Background

Bangladesh is located in the northeastern part of South Asia between 20°34¢-26°38¢ N latitude and 80°01¢-92°41¢ E Longitude. The area of the country is 14.75 million hectares, mostly composed of flood plains (80 percent), except some hilly areas (12percent) concentrated in the east and southeast part of the country. In land use, 9.12 million hectares are under cultivation, 1.91 hectares under public forest, 0.27 million hectares under village groves and 1.64 million hectares remain constantly under water. The other land areas (1.81 million ha) are occupied by tea gardens, fallow lands, rural and urban houses, ponds etc. (Kibria et al. 2000). The country enjoys a subtropical climate with distinct rainfall and dry periods. The annual rainfall of the country ranges from 1270-5080 mm. Average daily temperature varies from 11-34°C. In summer the temperature varies from 36.7 to 40.4°C and in winter it ranges from 7.2 to 23.3°C (BBS, 1994).

Agriculture is the major economic activities of the rural people. Rice is the major agricultural crop while jute, sugar-cane and tea are the main cash crops. Other important crops are wheat, tobacco, pulses, vegetables and tree fruits. Employment in agriculture has almost reached a state of saturation while the labour force is increasing at an annual rate of 2.7 percent. In fact, income from crop production is not enough to allow marginal and small farm households to subsist (Zashimuddin, 2003).

1.2. Justification

Poverty is a basic problem of rural people throughout the developing countries including Bangladesh and this problem is widerspread and complex. Rural poverty and deforestation are inter-related problems in Bangladesh, accelerated by over population, land scarcity and natural disasters. About 55.3 million people are living without food, on less than 2122 kilocalories per day (absolute poverty). The challenge facing scientists, researchers, extension workers and farmers in the next millennium is to find appropriate ways of utilizing the earth's resources to feed the predicted doubling of the human population while at the same time improving the living standards of rural people.
The pressure on the food supply will not only come from the increase in the population but from the deterioration in the natural resource base caused by factors such as deforestation, which causes flooding or drought; burning of fossil fuels, leading to global warming; and the pollution of soil and water by the overuse of agrochemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides. The effects of deforestation are especially serious in Bangladesh; the result has been a permanent fall in the lake's water level which has led to a reduction in the numbers of fish, a most important source of protein for the Bangladeshi population. In order to respond to these issues it has been argued that, instead of exploiting resources for production of specific commodities, it is more appropriate to match the farming system with the available resources (Preston and Leng, 1987). The successful development of this strategy entails the identification of cropping systems that optimize the use of the basal resources of sunlight, soil and water to satisfy human needs for food, fuel, clothing and shelter. This approach takes a holistic view of human needs to include sociocultural, economic and environmental aspects, instead of individual crop or animal productivity as a unique paradigm.
The application of this approach, taking as an example the case of the palm tree, the use of which has been a traditional feature of rural life in Bangladesh. The great economic palm in Bangladesh is coconut (Cocos nucifera), the most common tree palm of southern and central districts. Betel nut palm is also a common and popular plant cultivated in the homesteads. The mature seed is mostly used as constituent mastication with betel leaf. The nut is considered as "small farmers' cash crop. The palm-sugar industry in an age old practice in Bangladesh. The juice of wild palm (Phoenix sylvestris) and Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer) constitute favorite commercial sugar. The annual production of palm sugar is about 30,000 m tons. Wild date palm is popular for tapped sap obtained from upper stem just below the crown of leaves during night of winter season. The sugary sap of Palmyra palm is tapped from the young inflorescence during day and night in the beginning of summer. The sweet watery sap of both of the palm species is used as popular drink. In raw sap the sugar content is about 10-20%. The daytime sap is used as alcoholic drink and vinegar. The fruits of both date palm and Palmyra palm are minor but popular. The indigenous today-palm and the exotic bottle palm, and talipot palms are the Common Avenue and garden plants in Bangladesh. Palm oil has been tried to commercialize in the eastern hilly region of Bangladesh with no success. Rattans constitute a very popular group of palm plants in Bangladesh, consisting of eight species. These have great demand in making furniture, box, basket, and building materials. Young shoots of Daemonorops jenkinsiana and D. tenuies are used as vegetable.
1.3. Objectives
Considering the immense importance of the palm trees in Bangladesh the study was undertaken with following objectives-
Þ To assess the existing stands of palm trees (Cocos nucifera Phoenix sylvestris, Borassus sp, Areca catechu etc.) and the socio-economic contribution of these trees.
Þ To critically analyze the present status of palm production in South-eastern region of Bangladesh.










CHAPTER TWO

2.0. METHODOLOGY

2.1. Selection of the study site

Palms trees are one of the major plantation trees for their fruits and sap collection in the south-eastern region of Bangladesh (Pasha, s.d.). There are about five zillas in the south-eastern region of Bangladesh where palms trees are very much concentrated. Out of six zillas, feni zilla was randomly selected. Out of six upazillas of Feni district the palm trees are very much concentrated in the plain land areas of sonagazi, chhagalnaiya, parshuram and Feni sadar upazilas. A list of four Upazillas of Feni district was arranged alphabetically and Feni Sadar Upazilla was selected randomly from the list. There are 16 Union parishad in the Feni Sadar Upazilla. A list of 16 union of Feni Sadar Upazilla was arranged alphabetically and Farhad Nagar Union was selected randomly from the list. There are nine villages in the Farhad Nagar Union. Out of nine villages’ one village (South Farhad Nagar) was selected randomly. No study was carried out previously on palm trees related to their role on rural economy. So the palm trees were selected purposively for the study. Farhad nagar Union of Feni Sadar Upazilla consist of a huge plantation of trees mostly by the palm trees (Palmyra palm, Date palm, betel nut, coconut and Cane). So this union was selected purposively. Out of total 240 households, 48 households were finally selected at random from the list for the study.

2.3. Selection of the Respondents

A preliminary socio-economic survey was carried out to ascertain important socio-economic parameters of the study area to select respondents for detailed study. The households were surveyed completely at that stage. The instrument used for that survey was a structured questionnaire worked out in advance and pre-tested for intelligibility. The survey was designed to gather information relating to: family size, educational status, total annual income, occupation of the respondents, total land holdings, state of palm plantation, cultural practices, harvesting, palm products etc. Household heads (in this case all were male) were the respondents of the study and they took help from other members of the family when viewed necessary.

After preliminary socio-economic survey, socio-economic parameters of potential value for the study were reviewed. Based on the total annual income, the study peoples were categorized into three groups as follows
· High income group, having total annual income more than 140,000 Tk.
· Medium income group, having total annual income range of Tk. 80,000- Tk. 139,000 and
· Low income group, having total annual income of not more than Tk. 79,000.
From these groups 15 households were selected taking 5 from each farm category randomly. Thus a total of 48 households were selected from the study area.

2.6. Collection of Secondary Data

Besides the information gathered by surveying in the study area, efforts were made to collect more information visiting the scientists and research officer working in different research institute and universities. Existing literature on the caption-related subject was viewed searching the Department of Forestry and, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, CRI (Coconut Research Institute) journals, BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics) libraries as well as the central libraries of Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, Secondary data were collected through literature review and general background information and map of the study area were collected from published sources and archives in the respective Upazilla Statistics Office.

2.7. Data Processing

The surveyed questionnaire was processed through a data base program. Tabular methods of analyses were intensively used to analyze the data.



CHAPTER THREE

LITERATURE REVIEW
Palms
Palm, any of the tall unbranched trees of the family Palmaceae surmounted by a crown of large pinnate or palmately cleft leaves. There are about 230 genera and about 2,700 species distributed mostly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. In Bangladesh at least 20 species of palms grow naturally. At least 5 exotic species are planted as avenue or as garden plant. The great economic palm in Bangladesh is coconut (Cocos nucifera), the most common tree palm of southern and central districts. Betel nut palm (Areca catechu) is also a common and popular plant cultivated in the homesteads. The mature seed is mostly used as constituent mastication with betel leaf. The nut is considered as "small farmers' cash crop. The palm sugar industries are an age old practice in Bangladesh. The juice of wild palm (Phoenix sylvestris) and palmyara palm (Borassus flabellifer) constitute favourite commercial sugar. The annual production of palm sugar is about 30,000 m tons.The indigenous toddy-palm and the exotic bottle palm, and talipot palms are the common avenue and garden plants in Bangladesh. Palm oil has been tried to commercialize in the eastern hilly region of Bangladesh with no success. Rattans constitute a very popular group of palm plants in Bangladesh, consisting of eight species. These have great demand in making furniture, box, basket, and building materials. Young shoots of Daemonorops jenkinsiana and D. tenuies are used as vegetable (Pasha, s.d.).
3.1. Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera)
The name Cocos probably derived from a Portuguese word meaning monkey, perhaps because its nut, bearing three germinating pores, resembles a monkey face. Its specific name derived from Latin, meaning nut-bearing (from fero = I bear and nux-nucis = nut). But many local names are used in different coconut growing areas of the worlds. In Bangladesh it is known as Narikel, Narikol or Narkel etc. and tender coconut as Daab (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.1. Area of origin and cultural areas
Native to tropical eastern regions, today it is grown over the Asian continent (India, Ceylon, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Srilanka) and in Central and South America (Mexico, Brazil); in Africa, the largest producing countries are Mozambique, Tanzania and Ghana (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.2 A brief view of Coconut Palm

The Coconut Palm is a member of the family Palmae which includes evergreen trees and shrubs, and sometimes vines. It is a long-lived plant that may live as long as 100 years. It is one of the most important homestead and plantation crops of Bangladesh with multipurpose uses. Coconut is a traditional plantation crop grown in Indian sub-continent for the last thirty centuries (Rahman, 2005). It is regarded as an important commercial crop of the tropical world. Although the actual history of the beginning of coconut palm as a plantation crop is known very little but it is believe that, its commercial cultivation was first started in Asia-pacific region (Rahman, 2005). Due to multifaceted uses, coconut has been eulogized as Kalpavriksha, and is commonly referred to as ‘tree of life’. Considering as one of the most important plantation crops, the second day of September observed as ‘World Coconut Day” (Rahman, 2005).

3.1.3. Scientific classification

Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Palmaceae
Family Palmae
Genus Cocos L.
Species Cocos nucifera



3.1.4. Botanical description
3.1.4.1. Habit
It has a single trunk, 20-30 m tall and 25-30cm in diameter with round large crown at the apex. Its bark is smooth and grey, marked by ringed scars left by fallen leaf bases.
3.1.4.2. Stem
Erect, woody and unbranched stem with no secondary thickenings. In most of the varieties it takes 3 to 4 years to develop a stem above the ground (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.4.3 Leaves
They are very large about 4.5 to 6m long, and 2 to 2.5 meter wide, usually form a crown. The number of leaves in the crown of a coconut palm varies according to the age of the plant and the rate of production of leaves. An adult coconut palm usually possesses about 25-40 numbers open leaves besides a few leaves in different stages of unfurling and the rest being those that have not yet protrude. They are pinnate compound and posses typical parallel venation of monocot plants, with long opposite fairly hard leaflets on a single strong and woody copious mid-rib. Coconut palm has a large photosynthetic area of about 100m² (Jayasekara, 2004).
3.1.4.4. Inflorescence and flowers
The inflorescences, arising at leaf axils and enveloped by a carinate spathe, are unbranched spadices; female flowers are borne basally, male flowers at apex. Flowers bear lanceolate petals, 6 stamens and an ovary consisting of 3 connate carpels. Cross pollination, either anemophilous or entomophilous, occurs. Flowers are fibrous drupes. The endocarp gradually becomes hard but not the whole of the pericarp.
3.1.4.5. Fruits and seeds
Its fruit, as big as a man’s head and 1-2 kg in weight, is a drupe with a thin, smooth, grey-brownish epicarp, a fibrous, 4-8 cm thick, mesocarp and a woody endocarp; as it is rather light, it can be carried long distances by water while keeping its germinability for a long time.Inside it contains one seed, rich in reserve substances located in the endosperm which is partly liquid (coconut milk), partly solid (flesh).When its embryo germinates, its radicle breaks through one of the three germinating pores, visible from the outside as well. The seeds are albuminous and hypogeal. On removing the fibrous coat and breaking open the shell a black covering –a thin layer-adherent to the endosperm is seen; this is the seed coat. The white thick mass is the endosperm. The embryo lies as a small un-differentiated body at one of the three ‘eyes’. In the germination of the coconut palm seed a regular sheath is not formed, as in other palms, and the undifferentiated embryo germinates in situ. Its lower end extends and forms a single cotyledon, which gradually enlarges and swells into a spherical, white, spongy body and fills the whole cavity of the seed. With the growth of the cotyledon the endosperm is seen to thin out. The upper end of the embryo develops into small shoot with a number of fibrous roots produce at its base. These roots pierce the thick fibrous coat of the fruit, and come out in different directions (Rahnan, 2005).
3.1.4.6. Roots
Numerous fibrous roots develop from the base of the trunk usually seems as a root mount about 0.25 to 0.5 meter high. These fibrous roots can travel about 15 to 20m in search of water and nutrient from the soil. Their root pressure is so high that they can easily penetrate roots to concrete building and can crack the structure (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.4.7. Ecology
The coconut palm thrives on sandy, saline soils; it requires abundant sun light and regular rainfalls over the year.
3.1.5. Geographical distribution and Habitat
Coconut is a high humid tropical evergreen plant with more adaptability to the coastal agro-ecosystem. It is widely distributed in the cost lines of tropical Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Island ecosystem of the Andaman, Nicobar, Lakshhadweep, Maldives, West Indies, Indonesia, Philippines and Fiji etc. is also considered as very good habitat for growing coconut. Globally, coconut is grown in more than 93 countries (Nair, 2004), of which India, Indonesia, Philippines and Srilanka produce more than 80% of the world production. However, India and Srilanka produce about one-third of the world’s coconuts and India is in the top position in production, while Mexico is top in productivity at present (Singh, 2002).
3.1.6. Climatic condition required for the growth of coconut palm
The coconut prefers a warm and humid climate, as it is essentially a tropical plant. Over 90% of the world’s total area and production of the crop lies between 20ºN and 20ºS latitude. A small quantity is also grown beyond this zone up to 27ºN. The optimum mean annual temperature for the best growth and maximum yield is considered to be about 27ºC with a diurnal range of 6 to 7ºC. However, it can be cultivated in regions that have a temperature range of 20ºC to 30ºC. The optimum total rainfall per annum is between 1300 to 2300mm. an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year results good production of nuts (Rahman, 2005). The coconut is adaptable to a wide range of soil types and reactions. However, it grows best in well-drained clay loam to sandy loam soils with pH of 5.0-8.0. The water table should lies within 2.0 meters for their better growth and nut production (Rahman, 2005).h
3.1.7. Coconut production in Bangladesh
Coconut is produced over the country in Bangladesh as homestead crop; however, the major coconut producing areas of Bangladesh can be demarcated into 5 zones as Coastal belts, Brahmaputra basin, Ganges delta, Surma basin and Other low lying areas with high water table zones (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.8. Plantation technique
3.1.8.1. Coconut Seedling Nursery
Fully matured seed nuts should be collected from selected good yielding (minimum 80 nuts per palm per year) healthy mother plants of desired cultivars or ecotypes. Generally 12 months old nuts are good for raising seedlings and January to April is the best period for seed nut collection. Seed nuts are spaced at 30-40 cm either vertically or horizontally in 20-25 cm deep trench. Soil or coir pith is used as substrate. Raising seedlings in potythene bags or in cement tanks with potting mixture have been found to be advantageous to obtain vigorous seedlings with better root system. These seedlings are superior for better establishment and early bearing due to less transplanting shock. The suitable potting media can be made after mixing vermicompost with sand (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.8.2. Transplantation

Coconut is a wide spaced crop. Proverb says, “Leaves must not touch with the others of the neighbor, debris and dead leaves must not remain on the crown, donors’ coconut will never be reduced but increased”. For homestead linear plantation plant-to-plant distance should not be less than 6 meters and as plantation crop 7.5 m X 7.5 m spacing is ideal. Wider spacing viz. 8m X 8m, 8 m X 9m, and 8m X 10m is also recommended for inter and mixed cropping cultures (Rahman, 2005).

Planting holes must be 1m X1m X 1m. it is better to dig out the soil at least six months ahead of transplantation of the well-grown healthy saplings. Seedlings are planted after filing the pits up to 60 cm with topsoil amended with compost. Coconut husk can be buried on the side. One year old seedlings of about five leaves with early split of leaves having a collar girth of about 10 cm are used for planting. After placing the sapling the hole should be refilled with loam soil and tightly be rammed. Frequent watering should be done if dry weather prevails. Irrigation with 45 litters’ water once in four days has been found satisfactory in sandy soils (Rahman, 2005).

3.1.8.3. Cultural practices for coconut

The best time for coconut plantation is mid-March to mid-April (Chaitra). 250 gm common salt can be mixed with the soil during plantation that can increase the hygroscopic behavior of the soil as well as termicide. In termite prone areas, the soil needs to be treated with Durban. A thick mulching should be done with rice husk, old thatch or straws and with coir pith in October, to protect the plants from the dry weather. Use of well rotten cow dung, decomposed leaf litter and plantation of Mander (Erythrina spp.) increases the soil fertility and thus helps in good growth of the coconut palms. The requirement of major nutrients for adult bearing palm is potassium, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus and the general recommendation for an adult palm is Nitrogen (N)-500gm, Phosphorus (P2O5)-320gm, potassium (K2O)-1200gm, Magnesium (MgO)-500gm and Borax-50gm.

The coconut palm takes up nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in larger quantities and magnesium in moderate quantities as major nutrients. The soil may get rapidly depleted of these nutrients due to prolonged coconut cultivations, which may be corrected by applying appropriate does containing above nutrients (Mahindapala and pinto, 1991).

Moisture stress is an important factor affecting coconut productivity. The effect of moisture stress on initiation and differentiation of vegetative and reproductive primordial and enlargement of cells has been reported. In Bangladesh, a dry spell is generally observed for 4-6 months from the end October to April. During this period irrigation is necessary to immature nut drop. Dry period irrigation can improve the yield by 25 to 75% (Bhuiyan and Ganguly, 1999).
Mulching with leaves, debris especially, with coconut husks, coir dust, and dried coconut leaves are very effective for reducing surface irrigation. Legume cover crops, especially with Phaseolus spp. Leucaena leucocephala and Lathyrus sativus etc. are very helpful from moisture stress as well as economical benefit and soil enrichment by nitrogen fixation. Gliricidia sepium has been identified in Srilanka as a promising multipurpose fertility as well as income generation by selling Gliricidia wood. It yields 5.0-6.0 kg leaf litter and 6. kg dry wood per tree every year from fourth year of planting (Gunathilake and Wasanthe, 2004). Cleaning of the dead leaves and debris from the crown keeps the plants free from the pests especially from weevils and beetles. It should be done at least once in a year. However, green leaves should not be removed except those that are diseased and wounded.

Generally, coconut flowers at the age of 6 to 7 years. Sometimes it might delay if the nutrient supply is not sufficient or balanced or the plants suffer from water stress at least for a critical period. In that case, it is advised to dig trench one meter away from the tree and fill the trench with leaf litter debris and well rotten cow dung and re-fill with soil. Watering should be done in dry season. The trench may be L-shaped covering two sides only, of depth 75 cm, and 50 cm wide. The nutritional requirement of coconut and its associate crops should be met by proper recycling of all the by-products available within the growing area and the crop residues should be recycled after composting, so as to minimize the net loss of nutrients from the coconut-growing site (Rahman, 2005).

Since coconut is a wide spaced crop, there is a great scope for inter and mixed cropping for better land utilization with high productivity. Maximum root activity is found within the radius of 2 meters, and to a depth of 1.2 meter from base of the coconut palm. As the plant is un-branched tall tree with pinnately cut leaflets and pentastichous leaf orientation; light interception is also very low. Therefore, partial shade loving vegetables, fruits, spices, corms, arums, vines and creepers etc. can easily be grown under the plantation. This unique feature of coconut holdings can be properly exploited for enhancing income and creating employment opportunities (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.9. Products obtained from coconut palm
The multipurpose use of coconut is a well-established fact for many centuries in this subcontinent. Diversification in products and uses is going ahead very fast with the developing technology and interchange of knowledge from different corners of the world through publications, seminars, workshops, aggressive marketing campaigns and net media etc. Some examples of diversified coconut products are- Timber, leaves, fruits and roots. Other uses involve the aspects of ecological, industrial, technological and medicinal (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.9.1. Timber

After the completion of the economic life of a coconut tree, usually 20 to 25 years, the timber from the straight bole is used for different structural purposes like building construction (e.g. beams, rafters, joists, purlins, banisters etc,) and boot building etc, manufacture of furniture and handicrafts, and also for wall paneling. About 8 to 10 meter long bole of a mature tree can be utilized as structural timber and can produce 0.15-0.2 m3 timber. Pre-drilling is required for nail joints. The timber is produced from the peripheral hard shell of about 5 to 10 cm thick dermal high density wood (basic density 600 kg/m3 and above) and sub-dermal medium density wood (basic density 400 to 599 kg/m3) zones. The fibers of this region are lignified sclerenchymatous and contain 2-4% silica. The timber is durable in out of ground contact uses. It is resistant to insect borers, termites and modulus of rupture (MOR) is about 52 Mpa (Rahman, 2005). The inner core, low density wood (density below 400 kg/m3) of coconut tree is made with spongy tissues, is quickly degradable and widely used for mulching and composting. This is also used as filler for packaging purposes.

3.1.9.2. Leaves

Coconut leaves are widely used for roof thatching, for weaving decorative handicrafts, and mats etc. laminates and panels can be made by gluing and pressing and these can be used as paneling materials and partition walls. Paper trays and waste paper baskets can also be made by it. Dry leaves are used as fuel. The tender most leaves are used for decoration and for costuming in folk arts of South India. Tender leaves soaked in boiling seawater for some time are used to make hats (Rahman, 2005). For plaiting mature coconut leaves are dried under the sun and then split them longitudinally. After splitting, leaves are soaked in saline water for a few days, and dried in shade and plaited to coating with creosote or and casehew nut shell liquid are also practiced. The midribs of the leaflets are used to make brooms and fishing traps. The midribs of tender leaves are used to make baskets after soaking them in saline water for some time.

3.1.9.3. Roots

The roots are fibrous, strong and run 3 to 4 m distance in search of water and nutrients. They are good soil binders and prevent erosion. They also increase porosity of the soil. The coconut palm with an extensive root system continuously release photo synthetically derived organic compounds into rhizosphere which harbors a range of associative nitrogen fixers and entophytic with capabilities of nitrogen fixation and production of grown promotive substances (Rahman, 2005).

3.1.10. Uses of coconut palm
This tree is called in India "Tree of Heaven", "Mankind's greatest provider in the tropics", "Tree of life", etc. (Rangaswami, 1977). There are at least 1,000 uses for the coconut palm (Dissanayake , 1986).
Both tender and mature fruits are being harvested as major produces. Both the produces have varied significant importance. The yield of tender coconut is considerably higher than the mature ones, but the values added price of the mature nuts for multi-products also has great importance.
3.1.10.1. Tender coconut
In 1836, Charles Darwin, the proponent of the ‘Theory of Evolution’ remarked after tasting tender coconut sitting under the shade of coconut trees in Keeling Islands “Those who tried it, know how delicious it is to be seated in such shade and drink the cool, pleasant fluid of the coconut”. The liquid endosperm of tender fruit is being used against dehydration from the time immemorial. The Ayurveda says, “It is unctuous, sweet, increasing semen, promoting digestion, clearing the urinary path” (Gopalakrishan, 2004).
The demand for this natural drink that has nutritional and pharmaceutical values has been increasing steadily health conscious populace, which in turn promotes the trade in tender coconut to a greater extent. In Bangladesh, about 35 to 40% of the total productions are used as tender nuts (Bhuiyan and Ganguly1999). However, for mature nuts, the average yield per tree per annum is about 40 to 60 nuts and yearly income is taka 600 to 900. Whereas, for the tender nuts the yield is more than two folds and annual income exceeds TK 1000 per tree. Proverb says, “Donor’s coconut and miser’s bamboo yield more but never decrease, throughout the year” which means that harvesting of tender coconuts increases the opportunity for more frequent flowering and fruit setting.

Now-a-days tender coconut water is bottled as natural and purest soft drinks in the world. The water of tender coconut (TCW) is sterile, nutritious and thirst quenching drink. It possesses therapeutic properties. The TCW has a caloric value of 17.4 per gm. Its mineral composition is- Potassium-312 Mg/100 ml TCW, Calcium-29, Magnesium-30, Sodium-105, Phosphorus-37, Sulphur-24, Chlorine-183, Iron-0.10 and Copper-0.04 mg/100ml TCW (Rahman, 2005)

TCW contains vitamin C and B. The concentration of vitamin c ranges from 2.26 to 3.7 mg per 100 ml TCW.
For the storage of tender nuts, storage at `Low temperature` is the best method for prolong storage life, however, storage in wet gunny bags is also desirable to extend shelf life for about a week.

3.1.10.2. Coconut Water Beverages

Tender coconut can be preserved and packed in aluminum cans and retortable pouches for marketing as a soft drink. Concentrated coconut water soda is also made from coconut concentrate (Rahman, 2005).

3.1.10.3. Nata –De-Coco

Nata –De-Coco is a valuable delicious product manufactured from coconut water. It is a gelatinous product formed by the action of Acetobacter xylinium in a culture medium of sugar enriched coconut water. It is mainly used as a desert and ingredient in ice cream, fruit cocktail and frozen delights. It is also packed into cream pie and with mixed beverages, wine and liquor (Rahman, 2005).

It is also utilized as an ideal natural floral preservative for extending the vase life of cut flowers and foliage (Rahman, 2005).

3.1.10.4. Mature Coconut

Dry Coconut Dry and desiccated coconut is extensively used in many countries for making sweets and preparation of confectionary products.
Copra Two types of copra are manufactured: ‘edible copra’ and ‘milling copra’. Edible copra is made in the form of ‘ball’ and ‘cups’. In India, about six percent of coconut production is converted into edible copra (Rahman, 2005). Milling copra is used for industrial oil extraction and about one-third of India’s total coconut production is consumed for that purpose. Milling copra is available both ‘cups’ and ‘chips’ forms (Rahman, 2005).

Copra is produced after drying the kernels in copra drying bed under the sun and then dried in the kiln at temperature 35 to 60º C to bring down the moisture content at 5 to 7 and it takes about a week. In standard drying schedule is maintained in three phase with initial high temperature and gradual lowering down of the temperature. Normally, nutshells and charcoal powder are used for firing the skilns (Jayasundera et al., 2004). Dried copra should be stored in airtight baskets at relative humidity (RH) 33% for long storage and shelf life.
Coconut Oil It is an important hair oil and massage oil used through out the country. Is has medicinal value as well as a substrate of other curatives. As traditional edible cooking oil it is used in many countries like Srilanka, Maldives, Indonesia, India, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines etc. (Rahman, 2005). Coconut oil is also extensively used as confectionary fat and in manufacturing of paints, soaps, shampoos, detergents, and many other cosmetics. It is widely used for making margarine.
Coconut Oil Cake After the extraction of the oil from the copra, the residue is used as oil cake, mainly for cattle feed. It is a valuable fattening food for cattle (Rahman, 2005).
Coconut Vinegar Coconut Vinegar is manufactured from matured coconut water. It is used in pickle industry, salads, sauces, and various condiment preparations as a preservative and flavoring agent. Vinegar aids digestion and improves the quality of cooked meat and fish (Rahman, 2005).
Coconut Cream and Coconut Milk Processed and packed coconut cream is a ready-to-use product which can either be used directly or diluted in water in various preparations. The partially defatted cream is called coconut milk. Both are used as ingredients in household recipes and as components of processed foods. Coconut milk is also used as a mixer in alcoholic drinks (Rahman, 2005).
Seed nuts A huge numbers of mature coconuts are used for raising seedlings for new plantations. Now a day it is a profitable business as the government as well as private sectors has taken massive coconut plantation program (Rahman, 2005).
Coconut Husk The husk of mature coconut consists of numerous fibers embedded in a soft cork like tissue usually referred to as pith. The fibers are 15 to 35 cm long and have a high tensile strength which is unaffected by moisture. They consist mainly of lignin, cellulose and pectin and tannins. Coconut husk is the raw material for the coir industry. It is also used as a domestic fuel and as a fuel in copra kilns. Natural coloring compound and special type of paper are produced from coconut husks (Rahman, 2005).
Dehusking of coconut is generally done manually using iron spike. However, spherical manual operated tool for dehusking is developed in India which can dehusk 110 numbers nuts per hour (Rahman, 2005).
3.1.10.5. Sap of coconut palm
For centuries, many palm species have been tapped throughout the tropical world in order to produce fresh juice (sweet toddy), fermented drinks (toddy, wine, arak), syrup ("honey"), brown sugar (jaggery) or refined sugar. Tapping coconut juice from the unopened spadix of the inflorescence is in practice in some parts of India. Fresh coconut toddy is a refreshing and healthy drink. It can be promoted as a sweet natural healthy drink. Fermented toddy is a popular intoxicating drink. Jaggery or gur, vinegar and fenni are also made from coconut toddy. Fermented toddy vinegar contains 4-7% acetic acid (Rahman, 2005). In Africa, the main traditional use of palm sap is for wine production. It has been reported in Egypt (date palm) long before the birth of Christ (Barreveld, 1993) and on the Guinea coast by early navigators in the 15th century (Ayernor and Matthews, 1971). The major part of the information was found on palms that are tapped in the Old World, with more or less as many different tapped species in Asia and in Africa. Very little literature seems to be available on tapping palm trees in the New World. In America and Africa, it seems that tapping palms has been practiced exclusively or mainly for wine production, whereas in Asia the sap is used either as fresh juice or processed into a large array of products (wine, arak, sugar, vinegar, etc.). Most tapped palm trees give a sap very rich in sugar (10 to 20% according to species and individual variation). Gibbs (1911) cited by Van Die (1974) has reported a striking resemblance in dry matter, sucrose, and ash content of the bleeding sap from the coconut palm. Under proper management, the main tapped palm species (Cocos nucifera) can reach yields of about 20 tones of sugar per hectare (Van Die 1974; Watson cited by Kiew, 1989). Some medicinal value of the sap of coconut palm is also often reported: In Madagascar, Cocos nucifera sap is used against nephritis and bladder infections.
Van Die (1974) considers that the bleeding sap of Cocos nucifera and Arenga saccharifera, and probably some other palms too, may be regarded as the mobile aqueous phase of the sieve tube system of these trees, flowing to an artificial sink, the bleeding site. However, the rate of bleeding from a single inflorescence is several times higher than the rate of assimilate flow into a single bunch during fruit formation. The origin of the large flow of sap that occurs in a tapped tree is not yet clearly demonstrated. The age of palm trees for sap production varies very much according to species. Cocos nucifera can be tapped at a rather early age; it can be tapped at an age of only 7 years (Levang, 1988). The number of years a palm tree can be tapped is also very different depending on the species. Cocos nucifera can be tapped for more than 20 years (Rangaswami, 1977).
3.1.11. Methods of tapping and sap preservation
In Sri Lanka, segments of coconut husk are generally fastened all the way up the trunk for climbing the coconut tree; a loop round the ankles is used sometimes (CRI, 1967). In south Sumatra, simple notches are carved in the trunk. The inflorescence in its particular stage of growth is tapped (Redhead, 1989). The development of female flowers inside the spathe (about 60cm long) causes a swelling at the basis of the spathe. The appearance of the swelling is taken as the correct stage for tapping. The inflorescence selected for tapping is first trained, by a gentle uniform beating all over the spathe, twice a day, in the morning and in the evening, the spathe being wound around with a strong coir or coconut fibre string to prevent it from bursting. After a week's beating, about 7-10cm of the tip of the spathe is cut off. On the third day, the cut end is carefully pounded (Coconut Research Institute 1967). Beating is continued for about a week, while an earthen pot (in Sri Lanka) or a bamboo tube (Thailand) is hung from the spadix to collect the oozing liquid from the cut surface (Grimwood, 1975). The free end of the spadix is gradually bent down (CRI, 1967). If the trees are tapped for sweet juice, they are collected in the morning (Rangaswami, 1977). The sap generally begins to drip after 12-15 days, or up to 35 after the beginning of the tapping process according to the tapper's skill, seasonal conditions and nature of the palm. Then slicing about 2mm and collecting sap are done twice a day while tapping and bruising operations are discontinued (Nathanael, 1970, cited by Kovoor, 1983; CRI, 1967). Nevertheless, light tapping of the end of the spathe with a mallet may be continued and the sliced surface of the spathe is sometimes smeared with a mixture of bruised leaves which contains saponin and stimulates the sap flow (Child, 1964) cited by Grimwood, 1975). A single spathe will be tapped until it is reduced to a stump about 10-15cm in length. About three weeks before reaching this point, another spathe is prepared in order to ensure continuity of sap production without any break for a period of one year on good palms (Nathanael, 1970), cited by Kovoor, 1983).
According to Redhead (1989), coconut sap to be used for jaggery is collected in the mornings only, in clean vessels containing a fermentation inhibitor such as lime. In Thailand, the bark of Vateria acuminata or Shorea talura may be added. The sliced surface of the spathe might also be daubed with lime (Levang, 1988). In Indonesia, the earthenware pots are sterilized in a naked flame and about a teaspoonful (5g) of finely cut chips of Vateria acuminata bark is added (Purnomo, 1992). In Malaysia, a quarter of the container is filled with a mild solution of lime water together with dried latex from mangosteen bark (Naim and Husin, 1984).
3.1.12. Socio-economic aspects of tapping palm trees
Nowadays, the five major economic palms of the world are coconut (Cocos nucifera), African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), date (Phoenix sylvestris), betel nut palm (Areca catechu) and pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes). Even if the three first species mentioned are currently tapped, this remains highly marginal in their economic role. In the year 1910, 93% of the total amount of alcohol and alcoholic beverages produced in the Philippine islands was processed in 68 distilleries from 90 millions litres of the sap exuding from palm trees (mainly nipah and coconut palms).
3.1.13. Origin of the decline in coconut palm tree tapping activity
One of the main reasons for the decline of sugar production from palm trees is the increasing lack of fuel wood and its increasing price. In South Sumatra, 3 to 4 kg of dry clove tree leaves or 0.02 m3 of durian or Hevea woods are necessary to prepare 1 kg of sugar (Levang, 1988). In Cambodia 160 to 200 kg of fuel wood are necessary for making 35 kg of sugar (Lubeigt, 1977; Romera, 1968) and this is the most expensive component in the cost of sugar syrup production (Borin and Preston, 1995; Borin, 1996). Another major reason for the declining tapping is the market for fresh juice is very limited if the area is not close to a city (Romera, 1968). In the case of wine-producing palm trees, the decline often occurred under religious or colonial pressure within the framework of a general policy aimed at preventing people from drinking alcoholic beverages. Thus, tapping of Cocos nucifera has been disrupted. In Ivory Coast, the French colonial pressure tried to discourage the production of palm wine. In 1914, in the Baoulé region, the average consumption of palm wine was 135 litres/man/year but 2 years later the French governor forbade making and commercializing palm wine (which was also made from the African oil palm and Phoenix reclinata) except for family consumption and traditional events (Blanc-Pamard 1980).
3.2. Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer)

The word palmyra was come from Portuguese palmeira; from palma, palm tree, from Latin. The Palmyra is locally known as tal or toddy palm and tender tal is known as daab.

3.2.1. Area of origin and cultural areas

It grows wild from the Persian Gulf to the Cambodian-Vietnamese border; is commonly cultivated in India, Southeast Asia, Malaysia and occasionally in other warm regions including Hawaii and southern Florida. In India, it is planted as a windbreak on the plains. It is also used as a natural shelter by birds, bats and wild animals (Borin and Preston, 1995).

3.2.2. A brief view of Palmyra Palm (Borassus spp)

Borassus (Palmyra Palm) is a genus of five species of palms native to tropical regions of Africa, Asia and New Guinea. They are tall palms, capable of growing up to 30 m high. The leaves are long, fan-shaped, 2 to 3 m in length. The flowers are small, in densely clustered spikes, followed by large, brown, roundish fruits (Atchley, 1984).
The 5 species of Borassus are (Morton, 1988)
Borassus aethiopium - African Palmyra Palm (tropical Africa)
Borassus flabellifer - Asian Palmyra Palm (southern Asia)
Borassus heineanus - New Guinea Palmyra Palm (New Guinea)
Borassus madagascariensis - Madagascar Palmyra Palm (Madagascar)
Borassus sambiranensis - Sambirano Palmyra Palm (Madagascar)
(Morton, 1988)

3.2.3. Scientific classification

Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Palmaceae
Family Palmae
Genus Borassus L.
Species Borassus flabellifer

3.2.4. Botanical description

The Palmyra Palm is a member of the family Palmae which includes evergreen trees. It is a long-lived plant that may live as long as over 100 years. It is one of the most important homestead and plantation crops of Bangladesh with multipurpose uses. The botanical description of this plant is cited under the following heads according to morton (1988)

3.2.4.1. Stem

The palmyra palm is a large tree up to 30m high and the trunk may have a circumference of 1.7m at the base.Erect, woody and unbranched stem with no secondary thickenings. In most of the varieties it takes 3 to 4 years to develop a stem above the ground.
3.2.4.2. Leaves
There may be 25-40 fresh leaves. They are leathery, gray green, fan-shaped, 1-3 m wide, folded along the midrib; are divided to the center into 60-80 linear- lanceolate, 0.6-1.2 m long, marginally spiny segments. Their strong, grooved petioles, 1-1.2 m long, black at the base and black-margined when young, are edged with hard spines.
3.2.4.3. Fruits
Each palm may bear 6-12 bunches of about 50 fruits per year. An average crop of B. flabellifer in Ceylon is 350 fruits. The coconut-like fruits are three-sided when young, becoming rounded or more or less oval, 12-15 cm wide, and capped at the base with overlapping sepals. The outer covering is smooth, thin, leathery, and brown, turning nearly black after harvest. Inside is a juicy mass of long, tough, coarse, white fibers coated with yellow or orange pulp. Within the mature seed is a solid white kernel which resembles coconut meat but is much harder. When the fruit is very young, this kernel is hollow, soft as jelly, and translucent like ice, and is accompanied by a watery liquid, sweetish and potable.
3.2.4.4. Inflorescence
Palms generally start to form inflorescences at the beginning of the dry season (November to January). The male and female inflorescences are carried on separate trees: the male tree begins to develop the inflorescence in November or December while the female tree commences one to two months later. Each palm may bear from eight to fifteen inflorescences per year. The male inflorescence lasts approximately 45 to 60 days and the female 60 to 70 days. Both male and female inflorescences are "tapped" for juice collection. Some palms, especially the female, also have inflorescences during the rainy season.
3.2.5. Geographical distribution and habitat
It grows wild from the Persian Gulf to the Cambodian-Vietnamese border; is commonly cultivated in India, Southeast Asia, Malaysia and occasionally in other warm regions including Hawaii and southern Florida. In India, it is planted as a windbreak on the plains The Palmyra palm has long been one of the most important trees of India, where it is used over 800 different ways. The leaves are used for thatching, mats, baskets, fans, hats, umbrellas, and writing paper. The stalks are used to make fences and also produce a strong, wiry fiber suitable for cordage and brushes. The black timber is hard, heavy, and durable and is highly valued for construction. The tree grows well in poor acidic sandy soils and produces juice during the dry season in regions where plant growth is negligible in the absence of irrigation. The palm tree receives no agronomic inputs other than what is applied to companion crops (Borin and Preston, 1995).
3.2.6. General description
The Palmyra palm is a large tree up to 30m high and the trunk may have a circumference of 1.7m at the base. There may be 25-40 fresh leaves. They are leathery, gray green, fan-shaped, 1-3 m wide, folded along the midrib; are divided to the center into 60-80 linear- lanceolate, 0.6-1.2 m long, marginally spiny segments. Their strong, grooved petioles, 1-1.2 m long, black at the base and black-margined when young, are edged with hard spines (Borin and Preston, 1995).
3.2.7. Palmyra production in Bangladesh
Palmyra palm is produced over the country in Bangladesh as homestead crop; however, the major Palmyra palm producing areas of Bangladesh are- Roadside in the Village area, Aills of agricultural field and Homestead areas (Pers.Comm., 2006)
3.2.8. Products obtained from Palmyra palm
3.2.8.1. Toddy
The chief product of the palmyra is the sweet sap (toddy) obtained by tapping the tip of the inflorescence, as is done with the other sugar palms and, to a lesser extent, with the coconut. The sap flows for 5-6 mo - 200 days in Ceylon - each male spadix producing 4-5 l per day; the female gives 50% more than the male. The toddy ferments naturally within a few hours after sunrise and is locally popular as a beverage; it is distilled to produce the alcoholic liquor called palm wine, arrack, or arak. Rubbing the inside of the toddy-collecting receptacle with lime paste prevents fermentation, and thereafter the sap is referred to as sweet toddy, which yields concentrated or crude sugar (gur in India; jaggery in Ceylon); molasses, palm candy, and vinegar. Palmyra palm jaggery (gur) is much more nutritious than crude cane sugar, containing 1.04% protein, 0.19% fat, 76.86% sucrose, 1.66% glucose, 3.15% total minerals, 0.861 % calcium, 0.052% phosphorus; also 11.01 mg iron per 100 g and 0.767 mg of copper per 100 g. The fresh sap is reportedly a good source of vitamin B complex (Morton, 1988).
3.2.8.2. Seedlings
The peeled seedlings are eaten fresh or sun-dried, raw, or cooked in various ways. They also yield starch, which is locally made into gruel, with rice, herbs, chili peppers, fish, or other ingredients added. It has been proposed for commercial starch production (Atchley, 1984).

3.2.8.3. Fruits

Small fruits are pickled in vinegar. In April and May in India, the shell of the seed can be punctured with a finger and the sweetish liquid sucked out for refreshment like coconut water. Immature seeds are often sold in the markets. The kernels of such young seeds are obtained by roasting the seeds and then breaking them open. The half-grown, soft-shelled seeds for the hollow jelly-like kernels are sliced longitudinally to form attractive loops, or rings and these, as well as the whole kernels, are canned in clear, mildly-sweetened water, and exported. Tender fruits that fall prematurely are fed to cattle. The pulp of mature fruits is sucked directly from the wiry fibers of roasted, peeled fruits. It is also extracted to prepare a product called punatoo in Ceylon. It is eaten alone or with the starch from the palmyra seedlings). The fresh pulp is reportedly rich in vitamins A and C (Atchley, 1984).

3.2.8.4. Folk Medicine

There are innumerable medicinal uses for all parts of the palmyra palm. Briefly, the young plant is said to relieve biliousness, dysentery, and gonorrhea. Young roots are diuretic and anthelmintic, and a decoction is given in certain respiratory diseases. The ash of the spadix is taken to relieve heartburn and enlarged spleen and liver. The bark decoction, with salt, is used as a mouth wash, and charcoal made of the bark serves as a dentifrice. Sap from the flower stalk is prized as a tonic, diuretic, stimulant, laxative and anti phlegmatic and amebicide. Sugar made from this sap is said to counteract poisoning, and it is prescribed in liver disorders. Candied, it is a remedy for coughs and various pulmonary complaints. Fresh toddy, heated to promote fermentation, is bandaged onto all kinds of ulcers. The cabbage, leaf petioles, and dried male flower spikes all have diuretic activity. The pulp of the mature fruit relieves dermatitis (Atchley, 1984).

3.2.8.5. Palm syrup and palm sugar

A considerable amount of energy is required to condense palm juice into syrup or sugar; about 4 kg of fuelwood is needed to produce 1 kg of palm syrup (Borin et al., 1996). Cambodian farmers continue producing palm syrup and sugar because they can still find free fuelwood and it is their main income during the dry season. However, if an opportunity cost were put on the fuelwood it would often exceed the value of the syrup produced. Sugar palm juice is traditionally processed into three types of sugar: liquid sugar (sugar palm syrup), crystalline palm sugar and block sugar. The most common type consumed in rural areas is sugar palm syrup which is about 80 percent dry matter.
3.2.9. Age of Tapping
Many years are needed before tapping Borassus flabellifer. It can be tapped at the age of 15-30 years (Redhead, 1989). The number of years a palm tree can be tapped is very different depending on the species. Borassus flabellifer can be tapped for 30 to 100 years (Lubeigt, 1977). Some species are able to produce sap all year round, but Borassus flabellifer produce only seasonally (Crevost and Lemarié, 1913; Annett, 1913).
3.2.10. Methods of tapping and sap preservation
The most important product of the sugar palm is the sap or juice, the production of which lasts for five to six months. Various methods are used to climb the tree e.g. using ankle-loops, aerial ropeways between trees, hoop-belt, riveted bamboo, mobile 4-9m long ladders and fixed ones on the upper part of the trunks, notches in the trunk, etc. Tapping techniques of Borassus flabellifer are similar to that of coconut except for slight differences. Sap is collected twice a day in all cases. In some countries (Cambodia), different tongs are used according to the sex of inflorescence and stage of tapping (Kovoor, 1983).
In Sri Lanka, four different methods are used according to the sex and age of the inflorescence (Kovoor, 1983) which are mentioned below:
Two-week old male inflorescences: they are cleaned from their outer sheaths and left to dry for 3 days; then a fresh surface is cut daily and about 1 litre of sap is obtained daily for one and half months.
One-month old male inflorescences: all its spikes (12) are pressed, stroked and grouped 3 to 6 together to be fitted to a pot.
Young female inflorescences: the main axis is struck with an iron rod to soften the tissues and a fork is used to crush the nodes where fruits would arise.
Two- to three- month old female inflorescences: they already bear fruits which are sliced daily.
In Upper Burma, the 8-month duration tapping season consists in 3 tapping phases which also include specific operations such as four different tapping techniques, two for both male and female trees (Aubert, 1911). In Central Burma, sap collection can be continued all year round but with low yields between November and January (Lubeigt, 1977). In Cambodia, if a tree starts giving many inflorescences at the same time, some of them (1 to 7 according to tree, climate and location) will receive the usual treatment while the others will be sliced and crushed for 5-8 days and then preserved (3 to 5 months) for juice collection some months later (Borin and Preston, 1995; Borin, 1996). Clay pots, bamboos internodes, calabashes or leaf-buckets are used for sap collection.
Another tapping technique is as follows. The inflorescence is bruised in its particular stage of growth through beating and crushing it with wooden tongs. Then it is bound into "torches" and tapped by cutting off the bandaged tips (Redhead, 1989). A mallet is used for slowly hitting several minutes a day the trunk beneath and above the stem of the inflorescence while swinging it and finally pinching it before incision. A new incision is made after every collection (Friedberg, 1977). The method described by Crevost and Lemarié (1913) for Arenga pinnata is also practised on Borassus flabellifer.In order to slow down the fermentation of the sap, the vessels are smoked and coated with lime (Redhead, 1989). Bark or leaves from different species are also used: Schleichera oleosa bark or leaves (Friedberg, 1977; Kovoor, 1983), Shorea cochinchinensis bark in Cambodia (Crevost and Lemarié, 1913; Kovoor ,1983), Shorea obtusa in Burma, Shorea talura in Thailand (Lubeigt, 1977), Votica hermandiana bark (Magalon, 1930), Launaea coromandelica dried bark, Anacardium occidentale leaves (Kovoor, 1983), Vateria acuminta bark or Cyminosma pedunculata (Dissanayake, 1986). These pieces of bark are finely stamped and added to each receiving bucket (Fox, 1977). Tkatchenko (cited by Kovoor, 1983) has found that 5 to 7 g of lime per litre conserve the sap quite satisfactorily for more than a day against fermentation. In Roti Island (Indonesia), the tapper uses for every producing pair of rachillae a set of two leaf-buckets. Twice a day, he brushes the inside and cleans with water the leaf-buckets from which he has just collected the sap and which are going to dry as he places the other leaf-bucket of the pair for the following sap collection. This is reputed to slow down the fermentation of the fresh juice without changing its taste as would do lime or bark additives (Fox, 1977). In Upper Burma, the earthen vessels used for sap collection receive special treatment. Before being used for the first time, they are washed and exposed, still wet, with their openings towards a fire made of dried branches and leaves for about 10 minutes. Then they are changed twice daily after every sap collection. They are brought back to the house and washed and dried and just before replacing them on the tree, a few chips of the bark of Shorea robusta are put in the vessel (Aubert, 1911).
Davis and Johnson (1988) reported that, when the juice is fermented through the action of airborne micro-organisms, an alcohol content of 5 to 6 percent may be reached. The upper alcohol limit is not necessarily set by the quantity of sugar available in the juice, which is always in excess, but because the natural fermenting organisms are killed at an alcohol concentration of 5 to 6 percent, leaving a large amount of fermentable substrate.
3.2.11. Role of Borassus flabellifer in sustainable integrated production systems and in the protection of the environment
There are various types of palm-crop associations in Bangladesh. Borassus flabellifer can be associated with several of the following crops: rice, wheat, chickpea, mustard, jute, lentil, potato, linseed, winter vegetables and sugarcane (Abedin et al., 1987).Borassus flabellifer is often planted on boundaries of paddy fields in Cambodia and India. The effects of shading on understorey crops are likely to be negligible due to the small-sized crowns and to the large space (10-15m) between trees (Jambulingam and Fernandes, 1986). In Cambodia, rice cultivation and Borassus flabellifer sugar production are associated in many areas: an average family owns 24-25 Borassus flabellifer trees and 2-2.5 ha rice field (Romera, 1968). This tree thrives in reputedly the poorest, infertile and arid regions. In central Burma, after a year of drought, it still can produce sap during a year but the yield will decrease and the flow will finally stop (Lubeigt, 1977; Lubeigt, 1979). It also suffers remarkably little from prolonged flooding. It is extraordinarily pest and disease-resistant, requiring limited means of cultivation if any. As it grows in sandy plains, it is used for blocking erosion and fixing dunes, thanks to its deep root system (Kovoor, 1983). It is also, like Corypha elata, a fire resistant palm that is pioneer species on regularly burnt land such as those exploited by the slash-and-burn technique (Ormeling, 1956, cited by Fox, 1977). The young trees (up to 15 to 40 years) are used in Burma as windbreak in areas cropped with groundnut (Lubeigt, 1977; Lubeigt, 1979). It plays a major role in Savu and Roti islands (Indonesia) where the soil fertility is a crucial constraint. The traditional slash-and-burn system, which is currently practised in neighbouring islands (Timor and Sumba for example), has been replaced by semi-permanent gardening through the use of large amounts of old Borassus leaves that are burnt in the fields. This permits fertile gardens to be kept in the vicinity of the houses.
3.2.12. Causes of declining Borassus flabellifer tapping activities

One of the main reasons for the decline of sugar production from palm trees is the increasing lack of fuelwood and its increasing price. In Madura island (Indonesia), the cost of the firewood for producing Borassus sugar amounts to a third of the price of the sugar (Gebuis and Kadir, 1928, cited by Fox, 1977). In Cambodia 160 to 200 kg of fuelwood are necessary for making 35 kg of sugar (Lubeigt, 1977; Romera, 1968) and this is the most expensive component in the cost of sugar syrup production (Borin and Preston, 1995; Borin, 1996). There, Borassus flabellifer sugar making has been responsible for major forest-cutting and this sugar is not produced any more in certain rural areas because of the lack of fuelwood. On the other hand, the market for fresh juice is very limited if the area is not close to a city (Romera, 1968). In Upper Burma, the sugar industry from Borassus flabellifer consumes a large amount of fuel and has for centuries led to indiscriminate forest-cutting. In some areas, fuel for domestic use is even becoming scarce (Aubert, 1911). In Burma, every tapper uses about 3 tonnes of firewood per year; 4.4 kg are needed per kg of palm sugar (Lubeigt, 1979). In Central Burma, the price of fuelwood is rapidly increasing and tappers can hardly afford it (Lubeigt, 1977). This fuel problem started to become crucial in Burma at the end of the fifties when the government initiated measures to enforce protection of the forest (Lubeigt, 1979).
In the case of wine-producing palm trees, the decline often occurred under religious or colonial pressure within the framework of a general policy aimed at preventing people from drinking alcoholic beverages. Thus, tapping of Borassus spp in Africa mainly done for wine production has been disrupted wherever Muslim religion has become dominant. This happened in parts of Senegal where the catholic sereer had to leave their fields to Muslim wolof coming from the north. Before, in the catholic sereer areas, some people were fully employed as tapping professionals (Niang, 1975). In Ivory Coast, the French colonial pressure tried to discourage the production of palm wine. In 1914, in the Baoulé region, the average consumption of palm wine was 135 litres/man/year but 2 years later the French governor forbade making and commercializing palm wine (which was also made from the African oil palm and Phoenix reclinata) except for family consumption and traditional events (Blanc-Pamard, 1980). In Sri Lanka, a 10th century rock inscription prohibits royal officers from demanding toddy from villagers or engaging in illicit trade (Dissanayake, 1977). Centuries later, under colonial rule and thereafter, there was also a general ban on the production and sale of toddy at village level; the village headmen and the local constabulary who enforced these regulations were so repressive that very few villagers would have taken the risk of tapping Caryota urens even for making jaggery and treacle (Dissanayake, 1977).
In Africa, some destructive techniques of tapping were responsible for the disappearance of the trees in some areas. In Ivory Coast, Portères (1964) mentioned the high consumption of palm wine and the numerous specialized bars along the roads and in the villages, all this offering a lot of employment opportunities. The palm wine became very popular as through better means of communication, it could be made available throughout the country. The trees disappeared in entire areas within 10 years as the techniques used for tapping trees were destructive and regeneration of trees was neglected. In many places, socio-economic changes were responsible for the decline in palm tree tapping activity. In Ivory Coast, the important moves of population in the fifties (settlers setting up coffee, cocoa, rubber trees and oil palm plantations) were also responsible for loss of traditional codes of managing the trees and less long term concerns. Thus the traditional technique of tapping only male trees and keeping females for regeneration was abandoned (Portères, 1964; Blanc-Pamard, 1980). In many areas of this country, wine producing palm trees were replaced by rubber trees and oil palms under the French colonial pressure. In 1940, in Burma, the areas planted with Borassus flabellifer were reduced by more than one sixth because of the military operations consecutive to the Japanese invasion (Lubeigt, 1979). In Cambodia, the decline of the production of Borassus flabellifer sugar started in 1955 with the end of the exports of sugar to Vietnam and the increasing consumption of imported cane sugar: Borassus flabellifer sugar prices collapsed (Romera, 1968). In Sri Lanka, under colonial rule and thereafter, widespread cultivation of coconut as an exported-oriented crop drastically changed the local economy and imported sugar became cheaper (Dissanayake, 1977).
3.2.13. Industrialized processing of the sap
Borassus flabellifer sugar production is industrialized in Sri Lanka (Morton, 1988). In India, different products from the sap of this tree are industrially processed: sap as soft drink (600,000 bottles in 1982-1983 in Madras), chocolate bars, candies, apple jam, mixed fruit jam and palm syrup (Davis and Johnson, 1987). In West Africa, the sealed bottling of palm wine from the African oil palm is being undertaken (Bassir, 1968, cited by Hartley, 1977). In Cameroon, in 1969/1970, the consumption of locally made or imported drinks amounted to 405 million litres out of which 280 million litres were palm wine. In 1971 the first industrialized unit with a capacity of 1,000 litres/day of Raphia sp wine in sealed bottles was set up (Fyot, 1973). In Ghana, the palm wine industry (large distilleries in the cities and small scale factories located in villages) was also of growing importance with the decline in the palm oil industry (Ayernor and Matthews, 1971).

3.3. Betel nut (Areca catechu)

The name penang is derived from the word ‘Pinang’, the Malay for the betel or areca nut palm, many stands of which can still be found in penang to this day. The betel nut is a product of great cultural and symbolic significance to the Malay, being used in everything from marriage ceremonies and shamnaic rituals to cosmetics (Maxwell, 1997). The Betelnut also called Pugua or Mama'on by Guamanians is 'palm nuts' from the areca tree. The scientific name for the tree is 'Areca catechu' and resembles a thin coconut palm tree.

3.3.1. Area of origin and cultural areas

Betelnuts are chewed and harvested by millions of people from India, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Philippines, Marianas, American Samoa, Beleau, Bangladesh. The trees are found growing in moist ground and produce prodigous clusters of green fleshy nuts which mature into yellow and then brown hard nuts (Jahiel, 1993).

3.3.2. A brief view of Betel nut palm

A very attractive palm to about 10 m high, with dark green leaves, and an attractive dark green, ringed trunk. It has fragrant, scented, white flowers, which form into orange/scarlet fruit about 50 mm (2 inchs) long (Jahiel, 1993).



3.3.3. Scientific classification

Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Palmaceae
Family Palmae
Genus Areca
Species Areca catechu

3.3.4. Botanical description

The Betel nut Palm is a member of the family Palmae which includes evergreen trees. The leaf is called pupulu and different species from each island are different in taste. Leaves are large pinnate 1-2m long. The tree is slender, erect, up to 30 m tall with a smooth trunk and a crown of large pinnate leaves. The fruit is an ovoid drupe up to 5 cm long, orange coloured when ripe, with hard fibrous endocarp and a single seed, commonly called a nut. Depending on species, the nut sizes vary from thumbnail to fist size and the kernel (nut) is surrounded by husk (Islam, s.d.).
3.3.5. Geographical distribution and habitat
The Philippines and the Nicobar Island have been known as the centers of origin of betel nut. Various types have been described differing in size and shape of the fruits. The tree is very sensitive to drought and in areas with less than 1250 mm of rainfall per annum irrigation is usually necessary. It can be grown on a variety of soils, but clay loam seems to be preferred. Weather conditions are favorable for the cultivation of betel nut in most places in Bangladesh. Total area under the crop has been estimated at about 36,500 ha. The average yield per acre is about 3.45 m tons and total annual production is about 26,500 m tons. Although grown in all districts Barisal, Rangamati, and Khulna produce most of the betel nut. It is also grown in homestead gardens in cities and rural areas (Islam, s.d.).

3.3.6. General description
This plant is a very useful and attractive addition to garden, because it is one of the few smaller growing sun tolerant feather palms This palm is the basis of a large industry in Southeast Asia, where the seed is chewed for its intoxicating properties, as well as its supposedly beneficial side effects, such as aiding digestion, and controlling internal parasites and dysentery. The betel nuts are chewed casually like chewing gum by islanders and are a permanent feature of the cultures of the Pacific. Nut chewing is definitely an acquired habit more commonly passed down from grandparents (called guelo) to grandchildren (kahn, 1988)
Frequently, it is chewed with the betel leaf, a fresh green peppery tasting condiment. The leaf is called pupulu and different species from each island are different in taste. Betelnuts are chewed and harvested by millions of people from India, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Philippines, Marianas, American Samoa, Beleau, Bangladesh.

3.3.7 Betel nut production in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh betel nut are commonly produce along pond bank, roadside in the village area, homestead areas and along canal bank.

3.3.8. Cultivation

Betel nut is an easily grown palm for both the tropics and warm sub-tropical areas (it is apparently cold sensitive). It prefers shade when young, although it does take full sun at quite a young age. It likes a moist, well drained soil, and doesn't like to dry out.

3.3.9. Major uses of Betel nut

Betel nut may be chewed alone, but the usual practice is to wrap small slices or pieces of the nut in a leaf of betel pepper, to which lime is added. It is chewed after meals and on all special occasions. The nut is used as an astringent, stimulant and anthelmintic. The powdered nut, in doses of 10 or 15 grains every three or four hours, is useful in checking diarrhea arising from debility. The dried nuts, when chewed produce a stimulant effect. The young nut possesses decided astringent properties and is prescribed in bowel complaints and bad ulcers (Islam, s.d.).
Islanders prefer the hard reddish nut variety called "ugam" for its fine granular texture. When the red pugua nut is not in season, the coarse white variety "changnga" is eaten as an appropriate alternative. The nut is sliced using a specialized cutter called "tiheras pugua". Citizens of Micronesia (Islanders from the 'Freely associated Island Nations' which occupy an area larger than the U.S.) also partake in this custom but many prefer a different soft betel nut species which is succulent or gelatinous (Winstedt, 1935). For the seasoned chewer, 'amaska' i.e. the chewing tobacco brand "Mickey Twist" is mixed with the nut and leaf. For the brave at heart, 'afuk' or lime powder is also incorporated into the chewing experience. Lime is an alkaline white powder residue which results from cooking coral over an intense bonfire for several days (Mills, 1997). Chewing pugua is an age old tradition. Islanders do not comprehend why they chew it let alone in combination with other additives. It is part of being Chamorro (taotao tano) and is an inherent feature of social gatherings or fellowship which imbues the spirit of family goodwill to strangers (Mills, 1997).
3.4. Khejur palm/Date palm (Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.)

Khejur palm is common through India Srilanka and Bangladesh. Consequently khejur palm husbandry is a traditional land use practice through the world since ancient times (Blatter, 1978). Khejur palm is sometimes carelessly or erroneously called as date palm. But in its true sense it is wild date palm or date sugar palm as were known from the many writings. It is at best grows to a height of 7-16 m (Anon, 1987). According to Blatter (1978) it was mainly cultivated in India where numerous terminologies evoked for it. As for example, in Hindi it was known as:Sendhi, Kejur, Khajur, Khaji, Salma, Thalma, Thakil; in Bangla; Kajar, kejur, etc. It is also termed differently by various tribal of India for instances, Khejur in (kol); Khijur, (Santal);Sindi, (Gond);Khajur, Khaji, (Panj.); seindi,(Berar); Sendi, Khajura, Khajuri,(Bomb.); Boichand, sedri, shindig (Mar); Kharak, (Guz); Sandole-ka-nar, (Dec.); Itchumpannay, Periaitcham, Itcham-nar, Itham pannay, (tam); Ita, Pedda-ita, Itanara, Ishachedi, (Tel.);Ichal, Kulu, Ichalu mara, (Kan); Kurjjuri, Khajura, Madhukshir, (Sans).

3.4.1. Area of origin and cultural areas

It grows a wide belt from the Atlantic Ocean through the Sahara, the Arabian Peninsula, into Iran and the Indus Valley in Pakistan with their main centers of production. Outside this belt the concentrations are much more localized and except for the U. S. of less importance worldwide (dowson, 1982).

3.4.2. A brief view of date Palm

It is a very graceful palm, when not injured by extracting toddy and it attains at best 30-50 feet high (Blatter, 1978). Trunk rough from the persistant bases of the leaf stalks. Crown hemispherical, very large and thick, leaves 10-15 feet long, grayish green, quite glabrous, pinnate; petioles compressed only towards the apex, at the base bearing a few channeled triangular short spines reaching 4 inches. Pinnules very numerous, densely fascicled, 6-8 by ¾-1 inch long, glaucous, rigid, ensiform, conduplicate at the base, then canaliculated, absolutely acuminated, almost spinous pointed, 2-4 farious, some intermediately spreading, others crossing these above and below in an ascending direction. Male flowers white, scented; spadix 2-3 feet long, erect; peduncle highly compressed. Spathes of about the same length, very coriaceous, almost woody, scurfy, separating into two boat-shaped valves. Spikes very numerous towards the apex of the peduncle, especially on its anterior face, generally in fascicles and simple, 4-6 inches long, slender, flexuose. Flowers ¼-/⅓ inch long, very numerous, angular, oblique. Calyx cup-shaped, with 3 short rounded teeth. Petals three or four times longer than the sepals, concave, warty on the outside, on the adnate, shorter than the petals. Female flowers distant, roundish. Calyx cup-shaped, obsoletely 3-toothed. Petals 3, very broad, convolutedly imbricate, having a small opening at the apex. Staminodes 3-4. Carples 3, free, erect; ovules solitary; style recurved, inwardly papilose. Fruiting spadix 3 feet long, nodding at the apex from the weight of the fruit, much compressed, of a golden orange color. Fruit scattered on long pedulous similarly colored spikes, 1-¼ inch long, oblong-ellipsoid, orange-yellow, with a terminal stigma, surrounded at the base by the perianth.
3.4.3. Scientific classification


Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Palmaceae
Family Palmae
Genus Phoenix Roxb.
Species Phoenix sylvestris


3.4.4. Botanical description:
A brief description of Phoenix sylvestris which is mentioned below:

3.4.4.1. Stem

Straight covered with scars and remains of withered leaves and so it is a single stemmed tree going as high as 30m with an umbrella like canopy of green foliage.

3.4.4.2. Leaves

Simple, pinnate, 45-60 cm long, narrow, stiff, born in pairs, upturned.

3.4.4.3. Inflorescence and flowers

Inflorescences are spadix. Flowers are small yellow born in clusters of 6-20 appearing on a mature tree. Only female cluster produces fruit.

3.4.4.4. Fruits and seeds

Fruits are berry with fleshy pericarp which is sweet and edible, size 3-5cm. Cylindrical or oblong-ellipsoid, broencolor with a smooth, thin but slightly thick skin.Seeds are cylindrical, about 2-5cm long, hard endosperm and a small embryo, has a single groove, light to dark brown in color, often pointed on one end.
3.4.4.5. Cultural practices

Propagation by fresh seeds and suckers are commonly practices. Mostly plants are multiplied by suckers as it is easy and the fruits borne on this tress are of uniform size and of good quality suckers are grown in nursery for 12-18 months before being transplanted during rainy season. Spacing is 6-8m
3.4.5. Geographical distribution and Habitat.
It is widely distributed in the whole of Africa (Except the palmless regions), the South-African floral region and the East-African islands; Arabia; Western Asia in the region of the Euphrates and Tigris, through India to the Sunda Islands and Cochin China. It is usually cultivated and of course, common throughout India. However, observation revealed that it was not uncommon in the siwalik tract and the outer Himalaya and often associated with Pinus longifolia, reaches upto 5000 feet in Kumaon, with stems 40-50feet high and it forms extensive forests in Rohilkand, on the low ground which intersect and drain the rocky undulating granite hills; Ghiaunla in Ghawai at 3500 feet, banks of the bias above Mandi and in the jamu hills at 2000 feet elevation (Blatter 1978). It was commonly planted and self sown in most parts of India and Ceylon, except in sind and South Punjub, where, P. dactylifera takes its place. It is most abundant in Bengal, Behar, on the Coromandel Coast, and in Guzrat. In the Bombay Presidency it is common in moist ground throughout the dry districts, usually along banks and in the beds of streams and watercourses.
3.4.6. Date palm production in Bangladesh
Date palm is produced over the country in Bangladesh as homestead crop; however, in Bangladesh Khejur tree is grown in crop fields, homestead areas and marginal lands along the roads, canal and roads (Rashid, 1991). In the crop fields the palm is found on the ails (Slightly raised embankments that is used as boarder of crop fields); and also found within the field along with other crops (Abedin and Quddus, 1991).

3.4.7. Products obtained from Date palm
3.4.7.1. Juice
In Bangladesh it was grown in many districts, profusely in jessore where it found a considerable importance due to the extensive use of its sap in making sugar (Blatter, 1978). The sap of Phoenix sylvestris is also a good source of vitamins of the B group and contains in addition an appreciable amount of ascorbic acid (Rangaswami, 1977).
3.4.7.2. Leaves
From the leaves bags, basket, brooms, fans etc. are made. The footstalks, after being beaten are converted into ropes for drawing water from wells. The fibers are plentiful, soft, bleach well, and are very well adapted for the use of paper makers.
3.4.7.3. Fruits
The fruit is of an inferior kind and only eaten by the poorer classes, or used as medicine. Pounded and mixed with almonds, quince seeds, pistachio nuts, spices, and sugar its forms a restorative. A paste formed of the kernels and the root of achyranthes aspera is eaten with betel leaves as a remedy for ague.
3.4.7.4 Sugar of date palm
Sugars from palm trees such as Phoenix sylvestris and Borassus flabellifer are reported to be more nutritious than cane sugar (Rangaswami, 1977; Roy, 1951 cited by Morton, 1988). In Bangladesh, the industry of sugar made from Phoenix sylvestris is an old one and date sugar was reported as largely manufactured and exported at the end of the eighteen century. In the middle of the last century, after slave emancipation measures gradually decreased the supplies of sugar from the West Indies, a rapid rise in date sugar production occurred. In 1849, one fifth (10,000 tonnes) of the whole annual quantity of sugar exported from India to England was date sugar (Annett, 1913).
3.4.8. Age of Tapping
Phoenix sylvestris can be tapped at a rather early age when the trees are 5 years. The number of years a palm tree can be tapped is very different depending on the species. Phoenix sylvestris can be tapped for more than twenty years (Abedin et al., 1987). Some species are able to produce sap all year round, but Phoenix sylvestris produce only seasonally (Crevost and Lemarié, 1913; Annett, 1913).
3.4.9. Tapping technique
The stem is pierced up to the terminal bud (Kovoor, 1983). In Bangladesh, the oldest leaves are removed at the end of October on one side of the palm tree along about 35cm. The bases of the petioles and the sheaths are carefully removed. A triangle piece of bark is cut but great care must be taken not to expose the sap-supplying inner zone. A week later, as the fine covering of soft tissues gets a little hardened and begins to crack; this covering is removed without damaging the inner zone. Then comes a rest of 12 to 14 days after which a lateral incision is done in the triangle. The sap exuding from the scooped surface is run through a bamboo spout into a vessel. A new incision is made the 2 following days and then there is a 4-day period of rest and the same cycle is repeated until the heart is reached. The following year, the same treatment is done on the other side of the tree which gives a zigzag configuration to the trunk; tapping can be practiced every year for several decades (average of 25 years) (Fealy, 1925; Annett, 1913; Barreveld, 1993). In order to slow down the fermentation of the sap, the earthen vessels are coated with lime; in Bangladesh, they are well smoked every morning (Annett 1913). The juice is allowed to run during the night. The juice so flowing is the strongest and best, and is called jirin juice. In the morning the juice collected in a pot hanging beneath the bamboo spout is removed, and the heat of the sun causes the exuding juice to ferment over and shut up the pores in the tree. So in the evening new cut is made, not nearly so deep as the last, but rather mere paring, and for the second night the juice is allowed to run. This juice is termed do-kat and is not quite so abundant or so good as the jirin. The third night no new cutting is made, but the exuding surface is merely made quite clean, and the juice, which then runs, is called jarra. It is still less abundant and less rich then the do-kat, and towards the end of the season, when it is getting hot it is unfit even for sugar manufacture, the gur made from it being sold simply as “droppings”. These three nights are the periods of activity in the tree, and after these three it is allowed to remain for three nights at rest, when the same process again begins. Of course, every tree in the same grove does not run in the same cycle, some are at their first, some at their second night, and so on; and thus the owner is always busy.
As to the produce of one tree, one may expect from a good tree a regular average of five seers per night (excluding the quiescent night). The colder and clearer the weather, the more copious and rich will be the produce. In the beginning of November tapping has began. In December and January the juice flows best, beginning as early as 3 p. m., and dwindles away as the warm days of March come. The juice of the date palms is largely turned into gur (molasses) by being boiled in a vat. A special variety is the patali, a hardened circular cake of molasses generally consumed with rice and milk.
3.5. Rattans/cane palm

Rattans are mostly trailing or climbing palms with characteristic scaly fruits. The fruits are covered by vertical rows of reflexed overlapping scales. The scales are grooved along the midline. It is classified in tribe Calamaeae of sub family Calamoideae (Uhl and Dransfield, 1978) of the palm family Arecaceae (Palmae). The word “rattan” is an anglicized version of the Malay word “rotan” used for canes (Menon, 1980; Basu, 1985). In Bangla it is called “bet”. In popular English it is known as ‘cane’ in Bangladesh.
3.5.1. Area of origin and cultural areas
Rattns are one of the most characteristic features throughout almost all Asiatic tropical rain forest types. They extend from humid equatorial Africa, Indo-Bangladesh and South China through to Queensland and Fiji, and from sea-level upto 3000m altitude in the mountains (Dransfield, 1981). There are 13 genera and 600 species of rattans in the world out of which Asiatic and Malay Archipelago rattans comprise of 10 genera and over 550 species (Uhl and Dransfield, 1987).
3.5.2. A brief view of Cane Palm
Cane is one of the important natural resources of Bangladesh forests and homesteads. It is a raw material for cottage industries. Cane used to be exported from Bengal until the mid-nineteenth century. The pulp of the fruit is edible. There are 600 cane species comprising 13 genera in the world. Out of the 13 genera only two, Calamus and Daemonorops, grow in Bangladesh. Daemonorops is represented by a single species D. jenkinsianus (vernacular name golla bet). Calamus is reported to be represented by 10 species, namely, C. erectus (kadam bet), C. flagellum, C. floribundus, C. gracilis, C. guruba (sundi bet), C. latifolius (kora bet), C. longisetus (udam bet), C. tenuis (jali bet), C. viminalis var. fasciculatus (bara bet) and C. quinquenervius.(Griffith, 1850; Kurz, 1877; Prain 1903a; Brandis, 1906; Alam and Basu, 1988) Out of the 11 species recorded in Bangladesh C. flagellum, C. floribundus, C. gracilis and C. quinquenervius are now not readily available.
3.5.3. Scientific classification


Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Palmaceae
Family Palmae
Genus Calamus & Daemonorops
Species Calamus spp & D. jenkinsianus
3.5.4. Botanical description

Dransfield (1979) gives a concise and simple account of the general morphology of rattans noting important variation. Following is a brief morphology of rattans with particular reference to Bangladeshi species.

3.5.4.1. Stem

The stem sytem of rattans is very variable; it affects the general appearance of the plant and is of considerable taxonomic value. Rattan stems clered of leaf-sheath and debris consist generally of elongate internodes anmd well defined nodes. This structure is only visible in the forest or in cultivation in the lower and older portion of large mature stems. The younger parts of such stems are covered by spiny leaf sheaths. The leaf sheaths give the spiny appearance of most rattan stems and not the actual stem itself. One of the most important stem variations is solitary versus clustered stems. In bangladesh all the available rattans species are clustered (Alam, 1988).
Branching appears to be very complex. The usual method of branching is by the production of suckers at the base only which build up the clumps. At the base of a stem, braches appear which grow horizontally for a short distance and then grow vertically. The basal branching system is of very great significance. Dransfield (1979) mentions the presence of stolons in some species like Calamus trachycoleus. In bangladesh stolons are sometimes developed in C. tenuis. Aerial branch development in rattan palms is not very common. Aerial branch development in Plectocomia elongata and a few species of Calamus have been reported (Dransfield, 1978; Reuka and Nambiar, 1986; Fernando, 1987). In Bangladesh C. erectus exibits regular sub-aerial shoot production from the nodes towards the base at ground level or three to four nodes above the ground (Alam, 1988)

The diameter of the stem varies enormously from slender species to upto 20cm in Plectocomia sp. (Dransfield, 1979). In Bangladesh, the diameter also varies: slender in C. tenuis and C. guruba and upto 10cm without sheaths in C. erectus (Alam, 1990)
The stem surface is smooth and generally straw yellow in color. Surface features, such as colour, gloss and texture vary considerebly among different species of rattans. Among the species found in bangladesh, not much variation in colour or texture is noticed after drying.

3.5.4.2. Leaf

The rattan leaf may be divided into three or four parts: the sheath, the petiole, the laminar area and the cirrus (Alam, 1990).

Leaf sheath is perhaps the most important from a field taxonomic point of view. So precise and characteristic is the arrangement of spines on the sheath that sterile specimens of raatans represented by sheath alone, can be identified (Dransfield, 1979). The lower portion of the leaf that encircles the stem is the sheath. It develops basipetally. The exposed artea of leaf-sheath is only a small part of the total leaf-sheath length. Each sheath not only sheaths the stem but also about 2-4 of the sheaths above it. The leaf-sheath is almost always spiny; the spines are confined to the exposed areas. In the climbing species, the sheaths usually remain tightly sheathing until they die and rot off. Rattans occuring in bangladesh have charateristic sheaths having stiff recurved spines of sub-whorls to slender spines in an irregular fashion. The sheath may be glabrous or covered with various forms of indumentums. These are of taxonomic value. Flocosse indumentum characterizes C. viminalis var. fasciculatusd. Rust coloured idumentum is present on the rachis of C. erectus (Alam, 1990).

At themouth of the leaf sheath, there is sometimes an erect ligule-like structure, extending beyond the point of origin of the petiole. This is termed an ocrea, and is not usually very well developed, frequently disintegrating as the leaves develop. Occassionally the ocrea is very conspicous, and of considerable taxonomic value. In Bangladesh species ocreas are conspicuous in C. erectus and C. aguruba. A membranous, lacerate ocrea is characteristic of C. guruba. Tabular, hispid ocreas extended upto 30cm beyond the petiole margin characterize C. erectus (Alam, 1990).

In most climbing rattans the leaf sheath bears a large swelling at the base of the petiole. This is termed knee. The presence or absence of a knee often can be of taxonomic value. In Bangladeshi species, a knee is absent in C. longisetus

Petiole The petiole proper is the region above the sheath. The length and the armature of the petiole vary depending on the species (Alam, 1990).

Leaflets Leaflet arrangement is of great importance especially in the determination of sterile material. All rattan leaves are basically pinnate, and the pinnae are roof shaped in cross section. The two apical leaflats may sometimes be joined partiallly. A major leaflet distinction is between entire margined and erose-margined leaflets but there are no erose-margined species in Bangladesh (Alam, 1990). The leaflets may be arranged either regularly or irregularly. In regularly arranged leaflets there is an uninterrupted even series of leaflets along each sides of rachis. In irregularly arranged leaflets there may be an interrupted series of leaflets or the leaflets may be grouped.

The leaflets may be variously hairy, bristly or unarmed and these may be of taxonomic significance. Similarly there may be dense layers of flocculent indumentum, scales or wax, and again their presence or absence may be useful character for distinguish sterile materials.The juvenile foliage may be strikingly different from adult foliage. So for taxonomic purpose only the mature leaf characters should be used (Alam, 1990).

3.5.4.3. Inflorescence

Two major types of flowering: hapaxanthic and pleonanthic are distinguishable among the rattans (Dransfield, 1979). In hapaxanthic flowering the topmost nodes of rattans produce inflorescences more or less simultaneously and the stem dies after flowering or fruiting. In pleonanthic flowering, the stem continues to produce inflorescence, and the stem can continue to grow after flowering. All the species occuring in Bangladesh are pleonanthic. The inflorescence appears to emergre from the leaf-sheath obliquely opposite to the petiole.

The inflorescence axis arises in the axil of a leaf and a series of bracts, the first of which, the prophyll, usually has two keels and is often empty (i.e. does not subtend a branch). Successive bracts usually subtend branches. The inflorescence may branch to two or three orders. The ultimate braqnches the rachillae, bear flowers or flower group in the axills of minute bracts. In most rattans the male inflorescence is more highly branched than the female-for example the female inflorescence in Calamus branches to two orders whereas the male inflorescence branches to three orders. The bracts in Calamus are usually tubular; in Daemonorops they are open and boat-shaped (Alam, 1990). Most of the Asiatic rattans are dioecious, that is, there are male plants and female plants (Dransfield, 1979). In Calamus and Daemonorops, the rachillae of male inflorescence bear rows of bracteoles, each usually subtending one male flower. In the female the bracteoles subtend a pair of flowers, the fertile female flower and next to it a sterile male flower. The sterile male has all appearance of a fertile male flower except that the anthers are empty. The sterile male flower usually falls soon after after anthesis and then the female flower appears solitary; however, a scar is visible. The dead inflorescence can be differentiated: in the female there will be two scars for every bracteole and in the male only one. All rattan flowers have three sepals (variously free or fused), three petals (variously free or fused), six stamens or staminodes, and a triocular ovary or pistiillode. The ovary at ayoung stage is covered with vertical rows of reflexed imbricate scales. The stigmas are frequently realatively large and reflexed. Each locule of the ovary contains only one ovule (Alam, 1990).

3.5.4.4. Fruit

All true rattan fruits are alike. They are covered by vertical rows of reflexed overlapping scales. The scales are hard, shiny and frequently grooved vertically along the mid line. The number of vertical lines; the colour and appearance of the scales are sometimes of taxonomic significance. In the fruit usually only one seed develops. The seed of nearly all rattan has an outer fleshy layer, called sarcotesta. The fleshy sarcotesta is acidic to sweet and edible. The seed may vary considerable in shape. The endosperm is deeply of shallowly ruminate (Alam, 1990).



3.5.5. Distribution of cane and its habitat

The cane palm is distributed all over the world they are mainly found in India, Eastern India, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Sikkim, Himalaya, Andaman Island, Indonesia, Malay Peninsula and also in Java.

In Bangladesh, generally, canes occur in the northeastern hill forests Chittagong, Cox’s bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet. Good quality cane is also produced in Comilla, Bogra, Jessore and Rajshahi. Sal forests do not produce canes. Only C. viminalis var. fasciculatus sometimes occur in forest outskirts. Generally canes do not occur in mangroves. C. tenuis occurs along the edge of littoral forests towards the land side (Alam and Khan, s.d.).

In Bangladesh all species except Calamus tenuis are forest dwelling rattans. Among the forest dwellers most species except C. viminalis Var. fasciculatus grow in evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. C. viminalis Var. fasciculatus grow in the dry soils of mixed decidous or scrab forest (Alam, 1990).

3.5.6. Cane species grown in Bangladesh

Out of 13 genera of rattans only two, Calamus and Daemonorops occur in Bangladesh. Dae monorops is represented by a single species D. jenkinsiana and Calamus is reported to be represented by 10 species, namely C. erectus, C. flagellum, C. floribundus, C. gracilis, C. guruba, C. latifolius, C. longisetus, C. tenuis, C. viminalis var. fasciculatus and C. quinquenervius (grifith, 1850; Kurz, 1877; Beccari and Hooker, 1892-93; Prain, 1903a; Brandis, 1906; Blatter, 1926; Alam and Basu, 1988). But Beccari and Hooker (1892-93) and Blatter (1926) did not recognize C. quinquenervius.

3.5.7. Propagation method of cane palm

Canes propagate both by vegetative means and seeds. Suckers are planted for vegetative propagation. For seed propagation seedlings are raised in nurseries and then planted in fields. The fleshy pulp of the seed is first removed and then the seeds are sown in seedbeds where they germinate within a few weeks. When the seedlings attain a height of 0.75-1 m, they are planted in fields during the monsoon season. By 2-3 years seedlings grow to the size of a clump. Within 7-8 years the cane is ready for harvesting. Generally, no intensive management is required. Irrigation, if required and fertilization are done at an early stage of plantation (Alam and Khan, s.d.).

3.5.8. Common uses of Cane palm in Bangladesh

The household life in Bangladesh is marked by diverse use of cane. Cane is useful in building traditional houses and is used to manufacture goods of utility and in making assorted fancy articles of house decoration. Women in some regions are better in cane work. However, both men and women earn their living from making cane furniture and other cane products. Canes of different varieties are used in different purposes. In cane industry usually jail (Calamus tenuis) and golla (Daemonorops jenkinsiana) canes are used. Cane is used chiefly for knitting and binding. Depending on the design, different kinds of thick and thin parts are pulled off from cane sticks. Jali cane is used to make chairs, tables, swings, baskets, ladies' bags and other articles of varied utility. Golla cane is utilised in making frames for furniture of daily use and for other items. Depending on the nature of work, golla cane is cut into pieces lengthwise (Alam and Khan, s.d.).
Usually, cane takes good shape in 2 to 3 years when they become appropriate for use in high quality work. Moderately ripe canes have less water content in them and are flexible. Too ripe canes break while being worked on. Articles made with too young canes get cracked and shrunk and articles made of such cane are affected with wood-mites. Cane needs to be duly processed for protection against wood-mite and fungus. The quality of a cane product also depends on the quality of dye work on them. Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation (BSCIC) has a design Centre, whose artists conduct research to develop new designs and models and to assist the craftsmen working in this industry. The centre supplies newly developed designs and models to them free of charge (Alam and Khan, s.d.).
3.5.9. Role of cane palm in the Socio-economic upliftment
BSCIC was the first organisation to undertake a programme of preserving the indigenous tradition of handicrafts and revitalise some of those in wane. Under this programme BSCIC searches out traditional handicraft villages in remote areas of the country and offers different kinds of counseling for development and growth of handicrafts. It also assists artisans in marketing, product development and innovation, and technology. According to BSCIC sources, among 4,226 handicraft villages producing 29 selected commodities, the number of villages produce in bamboo and cane goods is 1154. Bamboo and cane goods comprise the largest subsector of handicrafts. The subsector provided employment to about 135,000 persons in 2000.
Cane products are in great demand throughout the world, especially in Asia and Europe. Bangladesh exports considerable quantity of assorted cane commodities to Russia, Germany, Singapore and the Middle East. Bangladesh earned considerable goodwill in cane crafts through participation in a number of international fairs held in Germany, Canada, Japan and some other countries. In 1999-2000, Bangladesh earned Tk 258.6 million by exporting cane and bamboo products (Alam and Khan, s.d.).




























CHAPTER FOUR

4.0. THE STUDY AREA

4.1. Study Area

The study was conducted at Farhad Nagar Union of Feni Sadar Upazilla of Feni district, Bangladesh.

4.1.1. Background
Feni district was established in 1984. It consists of two municipality, six upazilas, 45 union parishads, 540 mouzas, wards 27, mahallas 51 and 570 villages. The Upazilas are Chhagalnaiya, Daganbhuiyan, Fenisadar, Parshuram, Fulgazi and Sonagazi. Feni Sadar thana was established in 1929. It was turned into an upazila in 1984. It is located between longitudes 91° 20'E to 91°29'E and latitudes 20°50'N to 23°00'N (BBS,1997). Nothing is definitely known about the origin of the thana name.
4.1.2. Area and Location
Feni Sadar Upazilla occupies an area of 197.33 sq.km, is bounded by Chauddagram, Tripura (India), Parshuram and Chhagalnaiya upazilas on the north, Sonagazi and Mirsharai upazilas on the south, Chhagalnaiya upazila on the east, Daganbhuiyan upazila on the west. Main rivers are Feni and Little Feni (BBS, 1997).
4.1.3. Union, Mauza and Village characteristics

The Upazila consists of one municipality, 18 wards, 16 union parishads, 143 mouzas and 133 villages. The average population of each union, mauza and village are 15,243, 2,330 and 1,940 respectively (BBS, 1997).

4.1.4. Climate

The Upazilla is located in the tropical monsoon region and its climate is characterised by high temperature, heavy rainfall, often excessive humidity, and fairly marked seasonal variations. The most striking feature of its climate is the reversal of the wind circulation between summer and winter, which is an integral part of the circulation system of the South Asian subcontinent. From the climatic point of view, three distinct seasons can be recognised these are - the cool dry season from November through February, the pre-monsoon hot season from March through May, and the rainy monsoon season which lasts from June through October. The month of March may also be considered as the spring season, and the period from mid-October through mid-November may be called the autumn season.

4.1.5. Temparature

Average temperatures in January vary from about 17°C. In late December and early January, minimum temperature reaches within 4 to 7 degrees of freezing point. As the winter season progresses into the pre-monsoon hot season, temperature rises, reaching the maximum in April, which is the middle of the pre-monsoon hot season. Average temperatures in April vary from about 27°C to 30°C. After April, temperature decreases slightly during the summer months, which coincides with the rainy season. Widespread cloud covers causes dampening of temperature during the later part of the pre-monsoon season. Average temperatures in July vary from about 27°C to 29°C (BBS, 1997).

4.1.6. Rainfall

In the upazilla, there is a distinct seasonal pattern in the annual cycle of rainfall, which is much more pronounced than the annual cycle of temperature. The winter season is very dry, and accounts for only 2%-4% of the total annual rainfall. Rainfall during this season varies from less than 2 cm to slightly over 4 cm. As the winter season progresses into the pre-monsoon hot season, rainfall increases due to intense surface heat and the influx of moisture from the Bay of Bengal. Rainfall during this season accounts for 10%-25% of the total annual rainfall which is caused by the thunderstorms or Nor’wester (locally called Kalbaishakhi).

4.1.7. Soil

The landscape presents scenic blending of rivers and plain land, springs and lakes and patches of green forests. The soil type is sandy to loamy fertile soil. Main characteristics of the soil are slightly dark in colour, very strongly acidic, loamy soil mainly used for rice cultivation (BBS, 1997).

4.1.8. Land use system

Total cultivable land 18122.66 hectares; fallow land 249.89 hectares; single crop 6.95%, double crop 83.95% and treble crop land 9.10%. Main crops are Paddy, wheat, pulses, sweet potato, chilli, sugarcane and groundnut. Extinct or nearly extinct crops are jut and sesame (til). Main fruits are Mango, jackfruit, banana, date, palmyra, coconut etc (BBS, 1997).

4.1.9. Socio-economic condition
In the upazilla 25.46% of the total households depend on agriculture as the main source of household income, agricultural labourer 9.62%, wage labourer 2.03%, transport 5.45%, industry 1.42%, construction 1.77%, commerce 18.34%, service 20.8% and others 15.11%. Among the peasants 32.44% are landless, 45.24% small, 16.62% intermediate and 5.7% rich; cultivable land per head 0.12 hectare. The market value of the land of the first grade is approximately Tk 10000 per 0.01 hectare. All the unions of the upazilla have been brought under Rural Electrification Programme. The upazilla consist of a total number of52 dairy firm, 9 hatchery and 236 poultry firm (BBS, 1997).
In Feni sadar upazilla there are about 2 Public library, literary society 1, women's organisation 2, shishu academy 1, music training centre 3, theatre group 7 and club 17.
4.1.10. Demography

The upazilla has a population of 345801 of which 176,877 are males and 168,923 are females. The sex ratio of the upazilla is 105 males per 100 females. Out of the total population 51.15% are male and 48.85% are female. Various religious peoples are present in the upazilla of which 92.03% is Muslim, 7.93% is Hindu and others 0.04%. Average literacy is 43.05% for both sexes in the upazilla, 24.7% for male and 14% for the female (BBS, 1997).





CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion and Recommendation


Palm trees have proved to be efficient converters of solar energy into biomass in most agro-ecological zones of the tropical world. A most tapped palm tree gives a sap very rich in sugar (10 to 20%). For several millennia, many species of palm trees (including coconut) have been used for sugar production. But the production of sugar from the sap of palms is now extinct because one of the main constraints on production in recent times has been the increasing lack of fuel needed for processing palm sap into sugar and the price thereof. Another cause for decreasing the production of sugar from palms sap may be, it is much easier to set up, manage and control large sugarcane plantations to produce sugar than to use existing scattered palm trees. But, if the local farmer gets the modern technology for producing sugar from palms sap they will practice commercial palm plantation. There are many good arguments for revitalizing knowledge and research on palm trees, considering their multipurpose uses; they can contribute in many ways to the sustainability of integrated farming systems and to the socio-economic upliftment of the community. As palm trees are often the main subsistence resource for the poorest people, improving their plantation and production these trees are used will contribute to the alleviation of poverty. Palm tapping is an activity that does not require capital to start. In highly populated rural areas, it can be a major source of self-employment for the poorest people and avoid major drifts from the land. The study has pointed out some definite constraints prevailing in the study areas regarding palm tree production. On the basis of prevailing constraints the following measures can be taken to overcome the drawbacks to develop the palm tree production.


§ Good quality seedlings should be provided by the Forest Department to the palm tree cultivators.

§ Technology should be developed to protect the Coconut palm from squirrel attacks. Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) can take initiatives in this regard.

§ Both quality and quantity of palm products have been decreasing for seasonal variation within the country so Forest department can develop seasonal adaptive species to solve the problem.

§ Government should take initiative to regulate the marketing system of palm products.

§ Different NGOs can take initiatives to increase palm plantation.

§ Installation of Improved technologies for safe tapping practices.
























CHAPTER SEVEN

REFFERENCES

Abedin. Z, Aktar. S, Haque. F and Alam. S 1987. Uses of Multipurpose Trees on the Small Farms of the Low-Rainfall Ganges Floodplain Soils of Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of an international workshop held in Pataya, Thailand, 2-5 November 1987, P. 31-47.
Abedin, M.Z., Quddus, M.A. (1991) Agroforestry system in Bangladesh with particular
reference to economics and tenurial issue. In W. Mellink, Y.S. Rao and D. McDickens (eds) Agroforestry in Asia and the Pacific, RAPA Publications 1995/5, Bangkok, Thailand.

Alam, M. K. 1990. Rattans of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Bulletin 7, Plant taxonomy series. Pp26.

Alam, M. K. 1988. Sub-aerial shood development in Calamus erectus Roxb. RIC Bulletin, 7(3/4): 3

Alam, M. K. and Basu, S. K. 1988. On the occurance of Calamus longisetus Griff. in Bangladesh. Bano Biggyan Patrika, 17(1&2) : P 102-105
Alam, M. K. and Khan, S. U., Sine Datum. Cane [Online May 2006] URL: http://www.banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/C.htm.
Annett, H. E.1913. The date sugar industry in Bengal - An investigation into its chemistry and agriculture. Agriculture Research Institute, Pusa, India, Chemical Series II(6): P 281-389.
Anonymous. (1987) Abstracts on the date palm, 1951-1983. Palm and Dates Research Center: Baghdad, Iraq.
Atchley, A. A. 1984. Nutritional value of palms. Principes 28(3): P 138-143.
Aubert L 1911 The manufacture of palm sugar in upper Burma. Agricultural Journal of India. VI (4): P 369-376.
Ayernor, S G. K. and Matthews, J. S. 1971.The Sap of the Palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq. as Raw Material for Alcoholic Fermentation in Ghana. Tropical Science. XIII(1): P 71-83.
Barreveld, W. H. 1993. Date palms products. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin No 101. FAO, Rome. 262 pp
Basu, Shyamal K. 1985. The present status of rattan palms in India – an overview. In proceedings of the Rattan seminar, 2-4 Oct. 1984, Kualalumpur, Malaysia, (eds) K. Wong and N. Manokaran, The Rattan Information Centre, Forest Research Institute, Kepong, Malaysia, 77-94 pp

BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). 1994. Statistical yearbook of Bangladesh. Ministry of Planning: Government of the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh

BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). 1997. Statistical yearbook of Bangladesh. Ministry of Planning: Government of the Peoples’ Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Beccari, O. and Hooker, J. D. (1892-93). Palmae. In J. D. Hokker, Flora of British India, 6: P 402-483
Blatter, E. 1926. The Palms of British India and Ceylon. Humphery Milford, Oxford University Press, 600 pp

Bhuiyan, A. J. and Ganguly, A. K., 1999: Fruit Tee Management and Improvement; Local Iniative for Farmers’ Training(LIFT), CARE-Bangladesh
Blanc-Pamard, C. 1980. De l'utilisation de trois espèces de palmiers dans le sud du "V Baoulé"(Côte d
Blatter, E.B. (1978) The palms of British India and Ceylon. International Book Distributors: Dehra Dun, India.
Brandis, D. 1906. Indian Trees. 767 pp
Coconut Research Institute, 1967. Toddy tapping. Ceylon. Leaflet No. 48. 13 pp.
Crevost, C. and Lemarié, C .1913. Catalogue des produits de l'Indochine. I Produits Alimentaires. Gouvernement Général de l'Indochine, P. 347-352

Davis, T. A. and Johnson, D. V. 1987. Current Utilization and Further Development of the Palmyra Palm (Borassus flabellifer L., Arecaceae) in Tamil Nadu State, India. Economic Botany, 41(2): P. 247-266.

Dissanayake, B. W. 1977. Use of Caryota urens in Sri Lanka. In: First International Sago Symposium. The Equatorial Swamp as a Natural Resource. Ed. Tan K. Sarawak, East Malaysia, Kuching 1976. Kuala Lumpur. P. 84-90.
Dowson, V.H.W. (1982) Date production and protection. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No. 35. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations, Rome, Italy.

Dransfield, J. 1978. The growth forms of rain forest palms. In Tropical Trees and Living Systems, (eds). P. B. Tominson and M. H. Zimmerman, New York, Cambridge University Press, 247-268 pp

Dransfield, J. 1979. A manual of the Rattans of the Malay Penisula. Malayan Forest Records No. 29, forest Department, Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia, 270 pp

Dransfield, J. 1981. the biology of Asiatic rattans in relation to the rattan trade and conservation. In. The Biological Aspects of Rare Plants Conservation, (ed.) H. Synge. John wiley & Sons Ltd., London. 179-186 pp

Faroqi, G., Sine Datum. Gacchi [Online May 2006] URL: http://www.banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/G.htm.
Fealy, N. E. 1925. Quelques Palmiers exploités pour la production de Sucre. Revue de Botanique Appliquée & d'Agriculture Coloniale. 45: P. 383-387.
Fernando, E. S. 1987. Aerial and internodal suckering and branching in Calamus merrillii. RIC bulletin, 6(3/4): 5-6

Fox, J. F. 1977. Harvest of the Palm, Ecological Change in Eastern Indonesia. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusets, and London, England. 290. pp
Friedberg, C. 1977. Les palmiers à sucre et à vin dans le sud-est asiatique et en Indonésie. Journal d'Agriculture Traditionnelle et de Botanique Appliquée, XXIV (4): 341-345.
Fyot, R. 1973. La valorisation industrielle d'une boisson traditionnelle: le vin de palme pasteurisé.
Gibbs, H. D. 1911. The alcohol industry of the Philippine Islands. I. A study of some palms of commercial importance with special reference to the saps and their uses. Philipp. J. Sci. Sect. A, 6: 99-145
Griffith, W. 1850. Palms of British East India. Calcutta: Charles Screw.

Gopalakrishan, R. 2004. Editorial speech, Indian Coconut Journal, Vol. XXXIV No. 11, March 2004.
Grimwood, B. E. 1975. Coconut Palm Products, Their processing in developping countries. FAO Agricultural Development Paper No. 99. FAO. pp. 189-192.
Gunathilake, H. A. J. and Wasenthe, H. G. 2004: Gliricidia- for production of Green Manure and Green Energy in Coconut Plantation, Proceedings of the First Symposium on Plantation Crop Research Institute- “Current Trends and Future Challenges” Organized by Tea research Institute, Rubber Research Institute and Coconut Research Institute of Srilanka, july 8-9, 2004, Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall, Colombo 7, Srilanka.
Hartley, C. W. S. 1977. The Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). 2nd ed. Longmans and Green London. pp. 600-603.
Hoyt, S. H. Old Penang, Oxford University Press 1991
Islam, A. R., Sine Datum Betel Nut [Onliline May 2006] URL: http://www.banglapedia.search.com.bd/contributors.htm.
Jahiel, M. 1993. Le palmier doum Hyphaene thebaica (L.) (Mart.). Flamboyant. Bulletin de liaison des membres du Réseau Arbres Tropicaux. 28: 4-10.
Jambulingam, R. and Fernandes, E. C. M. 1986. Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands in Tamil Nadu State (India). Agroforestry Systems 4: 17-32.
Jayasundera, J. M. M. A.; Samarajeewa, U.; Jayasekara, C.; Kulatunga, A. R. and Rajappakse, M. 2004. Studies on Improvement to Copra Drying Process and Quality of Copra, Proceedings of the First Symposium on Plantation Crop Research Institute- “Current Trends and Future Challenges” Organized by Tea research Institute, Rubber Research Institute and Coconut Research Institute of Srilanka, july 8-9, 2004, Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall, Colombo 7, Srilanka.
Kahn, F. 1988.Ecology of Economically Important Palms in Peruvian Amazonia. Advances in Economic Botany 6: 42-49.
Khieu Borin & Preston, T.R. 1995. Conserving biodiversity and the environment and improving the well-being of poor farmers in Cambodia by promoting pig feeding systems using the juice of the sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer). Livestock Research for Rural Development, (7)2: 25-30.

Khieu Borin. 1996. The sugar palm tree as the basis of integrated farming systems in Cambodia.Contribution to Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds.
Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems

Khieu Borin, Preston, T.R. & Lindberg, J.E. 1996. Juice production from the sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer) in Cambodia and performance of growing pigs fed sugar palm juice. In Sustainable Tropical Animal System, p. 1-11. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden. (M.Sc. thesis).
Kibria, M. G.; Sarkar, D. C.; Hossain, M. A. T.; Mannan, M. A.; Motaleb, M. A. and Islam, S. S., 2000. Forest statistics of Bangladesh. Bulletin No. 4. Chittagong, Bangladesh, Forest Economics Division, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute. 119 pp
Kiew, R. 1989. Utilization of Palms in Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Naturalist 43 (1&2): 43-67.
Kovoor, A. 1983. The palmyrah palm: potential and perspectives. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper No 52. FAO, Rome. 77. pp
Kurz. S. 1877. Forest Flora of British Burma, vol. 2, 613 pp
Levang, P. 1988. Le cocotier est aussi une plante sucrière. Oléagineux, 43(4): 159-164.
Lubeigt, G. 1977. Le palmier à sucre, Borassus flabellifer L., ses différents produits et la technologie associée en Birmanie. Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique Appliquée. XXIV (4): 311-340.
Lubeigt, G. 1979. Le palmier à sucre (Borassus flabellifer) en Birmanie centrale. Publications du Département de Géographie de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne. No 8. Paris. 197 pp
Magalon, M. 1930. Contribution à l'étude des palmiers de l'Indochine française. Paris, P.185-191.

Mahindapala and Pinto, J. L. J. G. 1991: Coconut Cultivation, Coconut Research Institute Srilanka.
Maxwell,W. E. 'Notes and Queries' Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (MBRAS) Reprint 15, 1997.
Menon, K. D. 1980. Rattan: A state-of-the-art review. In Rattan: a report of workshop held in Singapore, 4-6 June 1979. IDRC-155e, 76 pp
Mills, J.V. 'Eredia's Description of Malaca' Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Reprint 14, 1997.
Morton, J. F. 1988. Notes on Distribution, Propagation, and Products of Borassus Palms (Arecaceae). Economic Botany, 42(3): 420-441.
Naim, S. H. and Husin, A. 1984. Coconut Palm Sugar. In: Cocoa and Coconuts: Progress and Outlook. Ed. E. Pushparajah & Chew Poh Soon. Kuala Lumpur 15-17 October 1984. P 943-946.
Nair, M. K. 2004: Strategies Towards Sustainable Coconut Production to enhance Competitiveness in India, Proceedings of the First Symposium on Plantation Crop Research-“Current Trends and Future Challenges” Organized by Tea Research Institute, Rubber Research Institute and Coconut Research Institute of Srilanka, July 8-9, 2004, Bandaranaike Memorial International Conference Hall, Colombo 7, Srilanka.

Niang, M. 1975. Le Rônier dans la Région de Thiès - Etude géographique. Notes Africaines. 147: 77-82.
Pasaha, M. K., Sine Datum. Palm [Online June 2006] URL: http://www.banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/P.htm.
Portères, R. 1964. Le Palmier Rônier (Borassus aethiopum Mart.) dans la province du Baoulé (Côte d'Ivoire). Journal d'Agriculture Tropicale et de Botanique Appliquée. XI (12):499-515.'Ivoire). Cahiers ORSTOM, série Sciences Humaines. (3-4): 247-255.
Prain, D. 1903a. Bengal Plants, vol. 2, P. 1097-1100

Preston, T.R. & Leng, R.A. 1987. Matching ruminant production systems with available local resources in the tropics and subtropics, p. 1-5. Armidale, New South Wales, Australia. Penambul Books Ltd.
Purnomo, H. 1992. Sugar Componentss of Coconut Sugar in Indonesia. ASEAN Food Journal. 7(4): 200-201.
Rahman, M. A. 2005. Plantation Crops and Organization Farming, Articles series-2, Article 1:Coconut: A Multipurpose Plantation Crop.
Rangaswami, G. 1977. Palm tree crops in India. Outlook-on-Agriculture (UK). 9(4): 167-173.
Rashid, H.R. (1991) Geography of Bangladesh. University Press Limited: Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Redhead, J. 1989. Utilization of tropical foods: trees. In: FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No 47: 3. FAO, Rome, 52. pp
Renuka, C. and Nambiar, V. P. K. 1985. Axillary shoot development in the aerial stem of Calamus. Principles, 29(4): 160-161
Romera, J. P. 1968. Le Borassus et le sucre de palme au Cambodge. L'Agronomie Tropicale. 8: 801-843.
Singh, H. P. and Mathew, M. T., 2002 : Sustainable Production and Utilization of Coconut: 2002; Coconut Development Board, Kochi, India.

Uhl, N. W. and Dransfield, J. 1987. Genera Palmarum, a classification of palms based on the work of H. E. Moore Jr. L. H. Bailey Hortorium and International Palm Society, Lawrence, Kausas. 603 pp.
Van Die, J. 1974. The developing fruits of Cocos nucifera and Phoenix dactylifera as physiological sinks importing and assimilating the mobile aqueous phase of the sieve tube system. Acta Bot. Neerl. 23(4): 521-540.
Winstedt R. O. 'A History of Malaya' Part I, Volume XIII, Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 1935.
Zashimuddin, M., 2003. Community forestry for poverty reduction in Bangladesh. Proceedings of the regional workshop on forest for poverty reductioin. Regional office for the Asia and the pacific.