Bangladesh Wetland Ecosystem- Information and Knowledge Base
ACRONYMS
BCAS Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies
BWDB Bangladesh Water Development Board
CNRS Centre for Natural Resources Studies
DOF Department of Fisheries
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FAP Flood Action Plan
FCD Flood Control and Drainage
FCDI Flood Control, Drainage and Irrigation
MOFL Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock
MOEF Ministry of Environment and Forest
MACH Management of Aquatic Ecosystem through Community Husbandry
NCS National Conservation Strategies
NEMAP National Environnant Management Action Plan
NGO Non Government Organization
SEMP Sustainable Environment Management Programme
GLOSSARY
Aman A term used in eastern India and Bangladesh for rice crop sown in monsoon and maturing after the monsoon.
Aus Rice crop planted before the wet monsoon season and maturing immediately before or in the wet monsoon
Beel Lowest part of the floodplain landscape, usually saucer shaped
Boro Rice sown transplanted and maturing in the dry monsoon season
Brackish Slightly saline water
Broadcast aman Direct seeded rice before the wet season, growing in deeply flooded condition during the monsoon and maturing after it; mostly floating rice
Ecosystem The basic ecological unit made up of a community of organisms interacting with their inanimate environment
Estuary the wide mouth of a river where the tide meets the currents
Haor A bowl-shaped depression between the natural levees of a river mostly found in the eastern region of greater Sylhet and Mymenshingh districts.
Oxbow lake A crescent shaped lake formed from a cut-off channel in an abandoned section of a river
Introduction
Wetlands are invaluable components of the environment, ecology, resource potential and biodiversity in Bangladesh. They are integral part of the local ecosystem based cultures. About half of the area of the country can be considered as wetlands. These consist of wide variety of types ranging from lakes, rivers and coastal forest to deepwater paddy fields and ponds. All these wetlands form a unique mosaic of habitats with extremely rich diversity of flora and fauna, much of it as yet biologically undiscovered. The wetlands also support the livelihood of millions of people from such diverse activities as fishing to collecting honey and materials for thatching and fuel wood.
The objective of this paper is to provide the wetland ecosystem-information and knowledge products. This includes wetland resources, the role of wetland ecosystem services: water pollution, livelihoods, food change and status of wetlands in the country, database on wetland development, management and conservation approaches and the case studies on conservation and maintaining of the wetland and its ecosystem. Also it includes some section on Geospatial information Multimedia on the wetland and its ecosystem. Available existing published literature, various project reports and information have also been used in perpetration of this paper.
Wetland Resources in Bangladesh
The abundance of water and wetlands has always been the geographically and historical destiny of Bangladesh. More than two third of Bangladesh may be classified as wetland according to the definition enunciated in the Ramsar Convention[1]. About 6.7 percent of Bangladesh is always under water, 21 percent is deeply flooded (more that 90 cm) and 35 percent experiences shallow inundation (FAO, 1988). The average discharge of water in Bangladesh delta in the flood season is more than five million cusec. The wetlands in Bangladesh encompass a wide verity of dynamic ecosystems ranging from mangrove forest (about 577, 100 ha), natural lakes, man-made reservoir (Kaptai lake), freshwater marshes (about 400 haors), oxbow lakes (about 54488 ha, locally known as baors), freshwater depressions (about 1,000 beels), fish ponds and tanks (about 147, 000 ha), estuaries and seasonal inundated extensive floodplains ( Akonda, 1989; cited in Akbar Ali Khan 1993 and DOF 1985).
Wetlands in Bangladesh are very rich depository of vegetations, aquatic plants, reeds and algae. The flora composition is relatively uniform throughout the haors, beels, jheels and baors but the dominance varies seasonally
Role of Wetland for Ecosystem Services
The major role of wetland are: Ground water recharge, Ground water discharge, storage of flood water, shoreline stabilization and reduction of erosion, sediment trapping, nutrient retention/removal, support for food chains, fisheries production, habitat for wildlife, recreation, natural heritage values, biomass production, water transport, bio-diversity presentation and micro-climate stabilization (IWRB 1992, Dugan 1990).
The wetlands in Bangladesh have great ecological, economic, commercial and socio-economic importance. They contain very rich components of biodiversity of local, national and regional significance. Among the estimated 5,000 species of flowering plants and 1,500 of vertebrates in the country, up to 300 plant species and some 400 vertebrate species are judged to be dependent on wetlands for all or part of their life span. Wetland also provide habitat for a variety of resident and migratory waterfowl, a significant number of endangered species of international interest, and a large number of commercially important ones. The inland capture fishery is based on the vast freshwater resources with some 260 species of fin fishes and 25 shell fish. There is substantial basis for the view that the country’s natural resources, especially the Sundarbans, could support development of richer tourism. Wetlands also support a significant range of other activities such as extraction of reed, harvesting if edible aquatic vegetation and their products, medicinal herbs, shell, etc., M. Salar Khan (1994)
Bangladesh wetlands also play an important role in flood control and storm surge protection. They also support fisheries, wildlife and forest resources. Wetlands are unique for their rich biodiversity and cultural heritage. It is the combination of all these function, yields and values that makes wetlands so important to the society.
Livelihoods on Wetland Resources
Wetlands are one of the most productive and resourceful areas, which provide food, non-food aquatic resources and retain the ecological balance for the local residents as well as for the nation. The wetland environment has united the inhabitants into a society, which has a definite shape, culture and livelihood pattern. Due to the availability of wide variety of harvestable products, the people of the wetlands are traditionally self-reliant and have subsistence-oriented economy and livelihood. Wetlands of Bangladesh are one of the major sources of livelihoods particularly for cultivating food crops, vegetables, fishing, and pasture lands.
Cultivation of rice is a major livelihood activity in and around the wetlands of Ganges- Brahmaputra floodplain and haor basin. During the dry season, domestic livestock are allowed to graze in the marshes and turfs. Of late, wetlands are also being used as duckery. The evolution and process of livelihood adaptation are usually backed by traditional and indigenous knowledge system and on rare occasions supported by modern researcher and extension.
Crops cultivation is the major livelihood activities in wetlands
About 76 % of the country total population live in rural area and major parts of the rural area is under various types of wetlands including floodplains, haors, baors, and lakes in Bangladesh. About 50% rural people are directly dependent on agriculture for their livelihoods and many others indirectly depend on agriculture input and crops marketing activities in wetland areas. In recent years due to consistent decline in inland capture fisheries, agriculture has emerged as the overwhelmingly dominant sector of the economy in the areas. High level of agricultural dependence may be the preponderance of landless rural households who have no access to other productive employments in the wetlands.
The vast flooded areas of wetland are covered by crops which can tolerate waterlogging and inundation. Before the introduction of mechanized dry-season irrigation in the sixties, deepwater rice or broadcast aman rice used to be the major crop in the wetlands during the rains. This crop was sometimes mixed with short duration aus rice to be harvested in June allowing broadcast aman to grow till November. Along with the introduction of irrigation and HYV there has been a change in cropping pattern in which HYV boro rice got preference over broadcast aman and aus. At one time, undivided Bengal had about 15,000 varieties of cultivated rice but the germplasm of most of them is lost leaving only about 6,000. Another major crop of wetlands is jute, the fiber of which is in considerable national and international demand. Wheat, rape seed, potato, tobacco, water melon, cucumber and pumpkins are also grown there. However, early heavy rains may cause considerable damage to these crops due to water logging. Homesteads are the major areas where fruits like papaya, banana, pineapple, guava and various vegetables like sweet potato, yams and taro are cultivated. During winter, the haor basin is planted with HYV boro paddy. Recent decades, almost all seasonal wetlands are now used for cultivation of HYV rice in the dry season. Landholders are engaged in crops cultivation in different season of the year. Poor people and the land less groups work in crop fields as wage labour or cultivate rich people’s land as sharecropper for earning livelihood income by cultivating crops.
Wetland as Source of Food and Medicinal Plants
The vast majority of the poor in the wetlands are dependent on water resources for their subsistence. The rootstocks of ghechu (Aponogetom spp.), tatro or kachu, Indian lotus and waterlilies are rich in starch. The seeds of makhna (Euryale ferox) are also relished. Two wild species of rice, dhane (Oryza coarctata) of brackish water and jhora dhan (Oryza rufipogom) of fresh waterbodies, are used as substitute for cultivated rice. Paniphal (Trapa bispinosa and T. maximowickzii) are plentifully available in large waterbodies and provide nutritious starchy kernels. A number of other aquatic herbs are consumed as leafy greens. Ghechu is cultivated after the harvest of boro in low-lying areas of Kishoreganj and Itna where the tubers reach a size of about 1.5 cm in diameter and are harvested in October and November as the floods recede. The ghechu tubers yield milky white flour having nutritive value like potatoes. As the tubers are not damaged in flood waters, ghechu forms one of the most important famine foods. Many people collect these resources for earning livelihoods and for household consumption.
Wetlands provide a wide variety of medicinal resources. A number of species of Polygonum locally known as bishkatali of kukra are effective antibacterial agents. The flowers and seeds of paddo (Indian lotus) are prescribed for piles, as a cardiac tonic and for elimination of ringworm. The flowers of water lilies are reputed as a remedy for heart ailments. Local Kabiraz (traditional health practitioners) harvest these medicinal resources for their livelihood income earning and many local people use these for remedy from various disease.
Role of Fishery Resources to Maintain Rural Livelihood System
Structure of the rural livelihood system, depends on the inland openwater fisheries to sustain rural livelihood system, status of protein intake and problem on health of rural population, and economic importance (trading, marketing and business) of the floodplain fish
Fishing is the second largest livelihood activities. The majority of rural population depends on fishing there. The available information indicate that this sector employs about 2 million people who remain fully engaged in fishing, handling, packaging, transporting, distribution and marketing of fish. An estimate showed that about 10 million people are engaged as part-time fishermen to supplement their income or to live on fishing in some part of the year. About ten per cent of the population depend on fisheries for their livelihoods in Bangladesh.
Large number of people particularly poor classes of rural people involve in making fishing gears and fishing crafts. Fish marketing, processing and fish transportation sectors also provide a large number of people. Therefore, floodplain fishing and fish related activities play a vital role to employ rural people, which is very much essential both to maintain sustainable livelihood and to eradicate the unemployment. After planting aman paddy e.g., in July to October (in the monsoon season) people become unemployed and become seasonal vulnerable due to less demand of work in agriculture field. Then agriculture labours are engaged in floodplain fishing to cop with the vulnerable situation or to earn livelihoods. Fishing into the floodplain in the monsoon season is common practice all over the country. Some poor fishermen engage in making fishing gears e.g., net and bamboo traps for selling to the fishermen for their livelihoods.
Role of the Wetland in Sustaining Fishery Production System
The rivers, floodplains, beels and estuaries are components of a single integrated open water fishery production system. During the monsoon months, all the components become connected with each other and remained under a single sheet of water, thus becoming a single integrated fishery production system. Within this system, the floodplains play the most important role in maintaining and enhancing fishery productivity.
Because of their seasonal drying and inundation, the floodplains become very rich in food availability for aquatic living organisms during high waters, offering rich nursery and feeding grounds for the larvae, hatchlings, fry etc of the populations of a large number of fish and prawn species. Moreover, in the monsoon season, the floodplain habitats also offer comparatively a calm and stable environment compared to the turbulent conditions in the rivers for fish, prawn and other aquatic animals to live, feed and grow. The new born young of fish and prawn which breed in the rivers move laterally out into the floodplains to feed and grow in that food rich, well oxygenated and healthy environment. Post larvae of freshwater giant prawn and other freshwater prawns spawning in the estuarine waters migrate upstream into the freshwater rivers and then laterally move into the floodplains to feed and grow. Fish and prawn resident in standing water bodies such as beels move into the floodplains to reproduce and their offspring use the floodplain for feeding and growth. During the floods, adults of some species of fish also are able to move into the seasonal floodplain habitats to feed and grow. The rise of water during monsoon flood allows the adults of river breeding species resident in beels to migrate back to the rivers and breed. Similarly, freshwater prawns needing estuarine environment to reproduce migrate to the coast from the rivers. At the end of the flood season, fish and prawn on the floodplains move, with the receding waters, back into deeper permanent water bodies such as rivers, canals, beels etc to survive through the winter and dry season. They become the brood stock to breed and multiply in the inundated floodplain in the following monsoon.
The fish species found in the floodplains during the floodphase are mostly small sized such as koi, kholisha, bele, mola, dhela, taki, punti, meni, singi, magur, chanda, baim, pholi, darkina etc. Fishes like aire, boal, shol, gazar and fry and fingerlings of river breeding major carps like rui, catla, mrigal and kalbasu also visit the floodplains to feed and grow. Besides fish, several species of freshwater prawn such as kucha chingree, gura icha, golda chingree, thengua chingree etc and their larvae & juveniles also are found in the floodplains. In addition, several species of freshwater mussels and snails also occur in the floodplains. Several species of freshwater mussels bear pink pearls. Mussel shells are also crushed to make lime for use with betel leaves and nuts. Snails are harvested to use their meat for feeding golda chingree (freshwater giant prawn) under cultivation.
The most significant role the floodplains play in the monsoon is the dispersal of all fish and prawn to all nooks and corners of the floodplain. During the floods, fish and prawn on the floodplains are thus carried literally to the doorsteps of the rural households when members of the rural households catch them freely as truly common property natural resources.
Status of Wetlands in Bangladesh
Degradation of wetlands and damage fishery resources
Since independence there has been an accelerated expansion of physical infrastructure in the floodplains and haor areas. In recent years, decentralization of administration at the Upazila (sub-district) level also led to a rapid expansion of roads and feeder roads even in the rural areas of the haor basins. These infrastructures were often done without proper planning or due regard to natural water flows. These poorly planed roads and drainage structures created water logging and had serious impact on the water regimes in the flood plains.
Nishat, A. 1993 pointed out that the degradation of wetlands in Bangladesh were mainly due to: increase of population and expansion of human habitats; expansion of agriculture and subsequent conversion of wetlands through drainage into rice fields; flood control and irrigation project for enhancement of agricultural productivity; national, local and rural infrastructures like ill-planed roads; narrow culvert etc.; over-felling of wetland trees; over-grazing by livestock; over-fishing and associated disturbances; siltation due to degradation of watershed areas which are often transboundary in nature; indiscriminate control/ regulation / use of water flows of main river systems in upper riparian; and pollution of water due to industrial, urban, agrichemical and other types of pollutants including pollution from transboundary sources.
A number of studies were carried out to understand the impact of water management projects e.g., FCD/ FCDI projects, FAPs and CPP projects where fisheries impacts have been stated. Every study has pointed out that the production floodplain fisheries are declining (Figure 2). Due to the construction of embankments, sluice gates, culverts and other structures, monsoon floodwater can not enter into the floodplains quickly and there is less floodwater. Fish fry could not enter into the floodplains, because of the delay in floodwater flow into the area.
Degradation of the wetlands in Bangladesh have created the following impacts:
Serious reduction if fish habitat, fish population and diversity;
Extinction and reduction of wildlife including birds and reptiles;
Extinction of many indigenous varieties of rice with the propagation of high yielding varieties;
Loss of many indigenous aquatic plants, weeds and shrubs;
Loss of natural soil nutrients;
Deterioration of living conditions;
Loss of natural water reservoirs and their resultant benefits; and
Degeneration of wetland-based ecosystems, occupations, socio-economic institutions and cultures.
Figure 2: Impact of Flood Land Removal on Fisheries: A Schematic
Pollution Status of the Wetlands
The pollution problems mostly originate from ‘abuse, misuse or cocktail’ use of pesticides, and overdose and untimely application of fertilizers and from domestic wastes. All the rivers flowing through Bangladesh originate outside the country and these carry heavy loads of silt, sediments and other debris, including domestic, agrochemical and industrial wastes, from far-away places. Together with these, local wastes are added, thus making the water saturated and at times oversaturated with organic and inorganic pollutants. The wetlands of the whole country are the dumping grounds for these sediments and pollutants and flushing out of materials to the sea is quite slow. The result is serious deterioration of the aquatic resources.
Most of the industries and factories are situated on the banks of the rivers or very close to a river system and the effluents and wastes are mostly thrown directly in the river water without any treatment to make the effluent ‘safe’ from the biological standpoint. As a result, the depletion of the biotic components near the sources is observed. A preliminary survey near the tanneries in Dhaka on the river Buriganga will reveal this fact. As the rivers are connected with each other and different mills and factories are situated on their banks, the recovery time of the water from the effects of the effluent is very low, and during the non-monsoon period, conditions become worse.
Whatever industries we already have are enough to render the entire wetlands of Bangladesh including the river systems ‘biologically dead’ if the conditions now prevailing are allowed to continue further. Many of our industries are creating hazardous conditions in their locality with continual disposal of toxic and harmful materials.
The industrial effluent containing acids, heavy metals, ammonia, toxic substances, etc., are directly thrown untreated into the water and together with these are added the agrochemical substances (insecticides, pesticides, fertilizers etc.) and the huge quantity of domestic wastes making the situation worse, influences by the pressure of the human population for food, shelter, fuel and clothing. Sanitation problem alone has created enormous health disaster in addition to the damage of the biological environment of useful organisms.
Resources use patter have been changing
Traditionally the wetland areas of the northeast were very sparsely populated. The rapid growth of population in the century has accelerated the process of settlement in these hitherto marginal and agriculturally unproductive lands. A significant area of wetland was covered by various types of forest including some unique and almost extinct freshwater mangrove species. Culturable waste and fallow lands surrounded the wetland area villages, as population pressure on land was not as serve as it is now. Occupational pattern and resource harvesting in wetland areas are also one of gradual change and transformation. At the early stage of settlement, fishing and cultivation of deepwater broad cast aman were the main activities of the wetland people. Gradually over time, this transformation into extraction of other aquatic resources and looking for other livelihoods earning opportunities, as competition for available resources stiffened. Landuse pattern in the haor basin depends on the land elevation. Since the basis is saucer shaped, its peripheral highland is used for homestead and adjacent to the homestead a patch of land and the sloping terraces are kept for vegetable gardening and post-harvest activity. Next hierarchy of land starts for agricultural use which is relatively higher in elevation, followed by the medium and low land. The lowest depression is the beel or permanent waterbodies. Beels are the habitat for the fish of the haor and the source of supplemental irrigation during dry season.
Indigenous Knowledge of Water Resources Management and Conservation
Irrigated Agricultural Production
Irrigation has been practiced in some parts of the world for several thousands of years. Basin agriculture in the form of paddies dominates agriculture in Bangladesh, both in the wet and the dry seasons. Today the lifting of water from surface water bodies using traditional methods serves and ever declining area of land and tends to be an activity used by the poorest in society. Such methods also tend to be man-powered systems. There are three main indigenous instruments for raising water. The Seuni or Swing-Basket, it is a scoop operated by two to four persons who swing it on ropes tide its four corners. Water can be raised approximately five metres by this means. About nine litres is raised each time, equivalent to approximately eight cubic metres an hour. The Lata or Dhenkli are used to raise water from shallow wells. They operate via a bamboo pole operating on a fulcrum at the end of which another smaller bamboo is tied, which has a can tide to the lower end. The bigger bamboo has a weighted lower end, so that when it is raised and left free the can is dipped in the water and raised. The technology displays marked similarities to that of the Shadouf found throughout the Middle East. In the drier areas of Northern Region, Dhenklis may be made to raise water as much as five metres.
Indigenous Knowledge within the Context of Freshwater Ecosystems
Wild Catch Fishing: Bangladesh has traditionally been rich in fish stocks. The Padma, Brahmaputra and Jamuna and their numerous tributaries have provided a plentiful supply of freshwater fish, supplemented by fish collected from other inland water bodies such as oxbow lakes and lowland areas, known as beels, flooded during the monsoon. The inland fisheries system is estimated to contribute almost 73 percent of total production and supplies 80 percent of the country’s animal protein requirements (Rahman, 1989). Fisheries is predominantly small-scale in character, and whilst little recent data are available, it is estimated that in 1975 a total of 95 percent of production came from small-scale producers using simple technologies employed by fisherfolk and producers from rural communities (Platteau, 1989).
The modernisation of agriculture using the ‘green revolution’ technologies (improved seeds, fertiliser and mechanised irrigation) has not generally been beneficial to local fish production. The irrigation-based growth of food-grain production has led to the reclaiming of floodplains, while rapid increase in the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for the control of weeds, crop pests and diseases poses a serious threat to the availability of wild fish. There has also been overexploitation of the country’s fisheries resources. Environmental degradation has been hastened by deepening rural poverty, which has increased the pressure on the aquatic ecosystem. Over fishing has depleted the natural fish resources in the rivers, lakes and ponds. The use of small mesh nylon fishing nets reduces the numbers of small and immature fish left in the water (Lewis et al, 1996). Natural fish stocks have reportedly also decreased due to increasing river siltation. Population pressure has reduced the quantities of land left for village ponds. Increased population pressure has also reduced the number of fish available. However, increased exploitation of aquatic resources is also the result of poor management practices by the states in the region. The construction and continued debacle over water dammed by the Farraka barrage has interfered with migrating fish. The system of leasing fishing rights to beels has been reduced in Bangladesh from five to one year, leading to over fishing and the neglect of the long-term viability of such water bodies, which represent essential common resources for rural communities. Matters have been made worse in recent years by the appearance of ulcerative fish disease (Paul, 1991). It is particularly worrying that the ulcerative disease primarily threatens the wild fish species, such as Shoal and Gojar, (as opposed to the cultured carps) upon which the rural poor depend heavily for protein.
Lightfoot et al (1992) provide an overall perspective of rice-fish research and development in Asia is given through a country analysis and highlights of research. Existing and potential rice-fish areas, and rice-fish system characteristics and their performance in several Asian countries including Bangladesh. The research findings give detailed information on production systems, indigenous knowledge, effects on rice yield and pesticide management. Country analysis shows that rice-fish systems presently occupy only a very small percentage of the potential area. The wide array of systems that exist can be broadly characterised by field design, growing period and fish species. Three types of field design are common: trench within the rice field, pond or sump within or adjacent to the rice field, and deepwater rice field. Research on productions systems reveals that while most systems are for grow out operations, rice fields are also suitable for nursery operations. Research has also found that modest increases of 10 to 20 percent are to be expected in rice yields when fish are cultured in rice fields. While overuse of pesticides has limited fish culture in rice fields, research findings indicate that proper application, selection of chemicals and integrated pest management (IPM) strategies can overcome this constraint.
As part of their work, Tsai and Ali (1997) provided a valuable overview of the indigenous fishing technologies utilised in Bangladesh. People use every conceivable type of fishing gear including hands, spears, traps and nets. Many of these are technologies originally provided by one of the many fisheries projects that were initiated in the 1980s and have since been adapted by the local population. The work also provides an insight into some of the management strategies associated with the various water bodies used by the rural population. The study found a total of 51 types of fishing gear in operation over the survey period. The type of fishing gear changes with the seasons, according to flood conditions, target species and size of fish. This includes 11 types of trap which display a bewildering variety of shapes, sizes and modes of operation. The polo for example is a bell shaped trap with an open bottom and a small opening at the top. This type of trap is used throughout Bangladesh during the dry season from December through to May. The trap is pressed into the mud in shallow water. The charai by comparison is a rectangular box like trap. The trap has a door extending from the base of the front to the apex at the back. At the top there is an opening for the removal of fish. The trap is set at the surface under floating vegetation. Often snail meat is placed inside as bait. A fishermen may operate about 100 traps which are set in the evening and checked in the morning.
Islam (1996), reports the use of tubes made from bamboo, date palm, palmyra palm or betel nut trunk which are placed in ponds, canals and rivers. After a few days, the ends are covered and the logs raised and fish inside removed. Hossain and Alam (1993) found that the aquatic weed get is tied in a bunch and then hung from a rope into water as a means of catching freshwater shrimp in Naogaon, Bangladesh.
Harvesting crabs from the bunds of rice fields is one of several food production systems practiced by resource-poor people in rice-based farming systems in south India. Rajasekaran and Whiteford (1993) conclude that the local population possess an in-depth knowledge of the crabs and their ecology, and that there are socio-cultural factors that influence the catching and consumption of crabs. They also highlight the important contribution crabs make to the protein intake of resource-poor households.
Jansen et al (1989) provide an in depth analysis of the country boat sector, including descriptions of the myriad of boats types that exist in Bangladesh. Much of the variation in boat type is dictated by operational purpose and logistical needs. The work also provides a brief insight in the methods, and techniques of country boat construction. However, unfortunately the work does not provide details of the small crafts used and all kinds of fishing vessel.
Aquaculture: Various efforts are needed to check further declines in the productivity of inland fisheries, stemming from over fishing, environmental pollution, and poorly designed flood control, irrigation and drainage and infrastructure development projects. Unstable development of shrimp production can be increased for the development of small, scale aquaculture among rural communities and at the household level (WRI, 1990).
Aquaculture is the controlled production, propagation and rearing of aquatic organisms of economic importance in a controlled environment such as ponds, channels and enclosures, using a higher density of cultured aquatic organisms than is normally found in nature (Ameen, 1987). Aquaculture is not a practice new to rural Bangladesh. Village ponds have been used for rearing fish for generations, although production has and remains extensive rather than intensive.
IK extends into many spheres of aquaculture. These may be placed in two broad categories: production and trade. Production knowledge relates to the best locations, times and means of wild hatchling collection or to techniques of hatchling production such as correct temperature and most suitable feed. Trade tends to refer to the movement and sales of eggs, fry and fingerlings via a network (formal and informal) of fish traders and merchants.
A random sample survey of ponds was carried out in the months of February and March 1982 in rural areas of all the districts (except Chittagong Hill Tracts) excluding reserved forest and tea gardens by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (1984). The total number of ponds was estimated to be 1.86 million of three 18.4 percent were derelict, i.e., completely out of use. The number of non-derelict ponds was estimated to be 1.54 million, with a standard error of 2.2 percent. The average area of a derelict pond was 0.17 acres. The ponds accounted for nearly 40 percent of the total inland fish catch. Major carp accounted for about 60 percent of the total catch and live fish (Koi, Singi, Magur etc.) for about 25 percent of the non-perennial ponds were used mainly for fishing and nearly 70 percent of the owners of ponds not being used for fishing reportedly lack of finance as the season for non-use. Only about 2 percent the non-perennial ponds were cultivated during the dry months. Practically all the ponds were owned privately either singly (47 percent) or jointly (BBS, 1994).
Islam’s work (1996) which involved extensive research into farmer’ ITK in Dinajpur district also include comment on a number of fishing practices. Many farmers were found to add kura, the red powdery coating of rice under the husk to their ponds. Others food sources include cowdung, poultry waste, chokar (the remains of wheat grains obtained after the extraction of aata and oil cake. The addition of banana leaves to ponds stocked with grasscarp was also recorded. Chowdhury et al (1996) observed that farmers in Lalmonirhat, north-west Bangladesh, frequently grind up the intestines of livestock and feed it to fish. In Joydebpur, termites are a frequently cited problem by farmers. Women and children collect up the mounds which are then thrown into fish ponds. Carp, particularly Ruhi, Katla and Thai saputi appear particularly fond of termite eggs.
The application of lime to ponds and pagars to clear unclean water is also common. A large proportion of farmers were also found to add fragments of banana plants (pseudostems) into the pond to clear algal growth on the water surface.
In many areas fish are dried, salted or fermented as a means of preservation (Hossain and Alam, 1993).
Lewis et al (1996) provides possibly the most extensive research to date on the state of aquaculture in Bangladesh. They conclude that not all IK is useful any more than all outsider knowledge could be said to be harmful. There are gaps in all knowledge systems and local sets of practices. Access to reliable sources of pond management knowledge is proving to be a problem for many farmers, who may rely on questionable folklore beliefs about aquaculture and upon information from self-interested sources such as fry traders.
Whilst aquaculture is still generally an extensive practice undertaken by farmers as an additional means of livelihood security, the incorporation of markets into wider patterns of supply and demand are now generating, in relatively small numbers at present, a new type of commercial fish producer interested in the economic possibilities of intensive pond fish production. The producers are also challenging existing cultural norms of labour task specificity, and many are seeking to harvest their ponds themselves. Such approaches pose a threat in terms of the potential loss of the local system of fish culture, with practices and technologies that have evolved over many generations. These types of skills, informed by local knowledge, and based upon sets of local beliefs and practices, are somewhat undervalued and often dismissed by outsiders (Hobart, 1993).
Cage culture is a relatively modern development in aquaculture, and one that has changed the long established, fish farming structures and, pushed forward fisheries development in China. Cage culture is typically characterised by intensive farming, running-water culture, high yield and great efficiency. It is generally accepted that cage culture will actively play an increasingly important role in international aquaculture (Hu, 1994).
Indigenous Knowledge of Farmers
Over the years, the farmers in many floodplains have found various ways of improving their farming techniques and adapting to their situation. Wetland remains submersed in water during a considerable time of the year. This restricts farming activities severely, but the farmers of different floodplains have adopted the practice of making floating gardens using water hyacinth for growing seedlings. They also cultivated nodular plants to increase the soil fertility and for a protection against wave erosion. The sections below give details of these two indigenous techniques used by the farmers in Chanda Beel.
Baira cultivation in Chanda Beel
Kochuripana (Eichhomia crassipes) grows in abundance in Chanda Beel. It is generally regarded as an invasive weed since it multiplies and matures quickly. It not only obstructs navigation, but also makes the water unsuitable for other aquatic organizasms. Its benefits include its use as construction blocks, ropes, compost, fuel, etc. An interesting use of water hyacinth is its use in making floating platforms for vegetable and other crop cultivation. The floating garden made from water hyacinth, locally called baira, is an age-old practice and has been in use in some parts of Bangladesh.
Inside Chanda Beel, people grow vegetables only to meet their family demands rather than for selling in the Market.
Doincha / shola cultivation
Doincha (Sesbania sp.), also known as shoal, is a member of Leguminosae family and plays a vital role if increasing soil fertility. In the nodules of the roots of this plant, nitrogen fixation occurs through bacterial action, thereby increasing the soil fertility. Most farmers at the project site cultivate these crops along with rice and vegetables, as they are aware of the usefulness of these plants. In addition to increasing soil fertility, doincha has many other important uses like it checks soil erosion against wave action; it can be used as a shed for pumpkin, gourd etc. and may also be used as fuel. The rotten leaves of this plant are also sometimes used as manure.
Case Study on Baira Farimg: Use of Water Hyacinth
Some communities of Gopalganj, Barisal and Pirojpur areas of Bangladesh have been traditionally in practice of baira cultivation for quite sometime. Table 1 lists the upazilas where this practice has been concentrated.
Other districts namely Jessore, Narail, Bagerhat, Khulna and Satkhira have numerous wetlands suitable for baira farming. However, these area have come under organized baira extension only recently under a couple of environment development projects. For example, CARE Bangladesh has initiated a project titled Reducing Vulnerability of Climate Change (RVCC) in southern Bangladesh including the above-mentioned five district and Gopalganj (CARE, 2004). Bangladesh is expected to face the adverse effects of climate change such as sea level rise, water logging, poor drainage, siltation and sea water intrusion. Some of these are already there on a limited scale, and consequently disrupting the normal farming system. The purpose of the RVCC projects is to facilitate the susceptible communities in Bangladesh to adopt to the adverse affects of climate change by adopting floating garden (baira) as a new farming option.
Table 1 Traditional Baira Farming Practice in Bangladesh
District
Upazilas
Gopalganj
Gopalganj Sadar, Muksudpur, Kashiani and Kotalipara
Pirojpur
Pirojpur Sadar, Sharupkathi and Najirpur
Barisal
Banaripara and Ujirpur
At present in most of the areas, the main component of baira is water hyacinth. But the techniques of baira preparation and cultivation on it vary from region to region, and even from village to village in the same district. On baira platforms people raise vegetable seedlings and/or grow vegetables. However, raising seedlings is manifold profitable than cultivating vegetables for marketing. Over a three-four months period, three to five cycles of seedlings production is possible. After the flood water recedes, the baira platforms cycles of seedling production is possible. Then baira platforms are placed on a relatively higher ground (locally called kandi) by the water bodies. These are then broken down and mixed with the soil as organic fertilizer. Beds prepared in this manner are then used to grow winter vegetables. In this way baira is used as floating platform in monsoon and then as fertilizer in winter to grow seedlings and crops for almost all year round in southern Bangladesh.
Figure 3 Photographs of Baira Farming in Pirojpur and Gopalgonj districts in Bangladesh
Prospects of baira farming extension in Bangladesh
Baira cultivation is a useful technique to practice widely in the floodplains of Bangladesh. Promoting this technique is easier because it has already been practiced in the country for a long time, although in a limited scale. We have the much needed expertise in our own floodplain areas. What we need is to motivate the people of other potential areas towards baira cultivation, and facilitate their understanding of baira as an alternative and environment friendly livelihood option.
In addition to poverty alleviation, there are several social, economic, agricultural, ecological and environmental benefits associated with baira practice. Some of these are listed below.
Baira initiatives for poverty alleviation
People in the floodplains of Bangladesh are mostly poor. These vulnerable people are constrained by not having cropping space in terms of access to or ownership of lands. In some cases, even when they do have the access, the land is submerged under flood water for around four months, restricting its use for cultivation. As a result most of the local people have to depend only on one crop per year.
Under such condition, the use of baira provides the farming community with additional cropping space at the time most suitable for cultivation. If the local poor community prepare baira and get involved into marketing of seedlings and vegetables, they would prepares five average size (30 ft x 9 ft) baira platform, at the end of the season his net income would be around Tk. 8,000-10,000, which is a good sum for a poor farmer or a vulnerable person in the beel areas.
Socio-economic benefits
1. Cultivation on baira platforms facilities employments in the floodplains areas in rainy season.
2. It increases quality food production, which positively influences the health of the local communities.
3. Baira cultivation promotes the expansion of a local techniques of hydroponics, thus helping in conserving indigenous knowledge.
Agricultural benefits
1. Baira platforms provide additional cropping and seedling raising areas in the floodplains especially during rainy season when the cultivation land is scanty.
2. Prime nutrient elements of plants, namely, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, are available in water hyacinth. A comparative study on water hyacinth and cow-dung has shown more or less similar concentrations of these elements (Aktar et al. 1997). Baira thus cuts down fertilizer expenses considerably.
3. Crops require shorter time to mature when cultivated of baira platforms
4. Increase vegetables supply in the area an the surroundings
5. The floating platforms could be used as additional space for community nursery in the wetlands.
6. When water recedes from the beels, baira platforms are used as organic fertilizer. In this way baira enhances eco-friendly agriculture practice in the following winter to cultivates robi/winter crops.
Ecological concerns
1. As chemical fertilizers are not used in baira cultivation in large amounts, this cultivation practice does not harm the environment by supplying chemical pollutants to the water.
2. Since baira residue could be used as organic fertilizer for winter crops, this practice cuts down pollution from chemical fertilizer.
3. Baira provides a good use of an invasive species like water hyacinth. This is a very effective way to control this notorious weed.
Environmental concerns
Low-lying countries like Bangladesh are prone to the consequences of climate change and sea-level rise. These include abnormal natural calamities (e.g. unusual torrential rainfall, increased cyclones, etc.) prolonged flood water stagnancy due to drainage problem, increased intrusion o salt water into the freshwater systems and so forth. Southern part is predicted to be the most vulnerable area of Bangladesh. One of the modes of adaptation to extended water stagnancy is to get familiar with floating platform (baira) cultivation techniques. Baira cultivation could help to continue farming in unusually long post monsoon period.
Case Study on the MACH Project
The Management of Aquatic Ecosystem through Community Husbandry (MACH) Project is an innovative integrated pilot programme to develop approaches and to demonstrate sustainable management of water resources including fish, plants, agriculture, livestock, forestry, and wildlife over entire wetland ecosystems. Wetlands in Bangladesh provide a critical sources of income and nutrition for millions of rural Bangladesh’s poorest people. Unfortunately, the productivity of these habitats is in decline due to over-use, increase rates of sedimentation from watershed degradation, pollution, diversion of water fro agricultural uses and the conversion of wetlands for agricultural and urban development.
MACT takes a multi-disciplinary participatory approach to address wetland decline. MACH is pioneering a variety of activities to reduce over use of wetland resources and to preserve wetland resources from degradation in selected project sites. These activities include development of fish sanctuaries, alternative income programmes to reduce seasonal pressures, reforestation of tributaries to reduce sedimentation and reconnecting water bodies to preserve wetland productivity. The MACH approach includes close integration of project initiated resource user committees with local government structures to ensure sustainability.
MACH is a GoB project that is being implemented by four non-government organizations, Windrock International, the Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS), the Centre for Natural Resources Studies (CNRS) and CARITAS-Bangladesh with support for USID. Currently the programme is working at three sites that are representative of the freshwater wetland ecotypes of Bangladesh: (i) Hail Haor MACH site in Moulvibazar District, (ii) The lower Bangshi/Turag River Basin in Gazipur and Tangail District and (iii) Sherpur area in Sherpur District.
The study on Estimation of Economic Value of Hail Haor: Hail haor is an extensive wetland area that reaches a maximum flooded size of 12,300 hectares (1999 measurement). The wetland area produce a wide varity of economic benefits. Some benefits can be more readily identified and quantified than other benefits. Direct benefits such as fisheries production, production of aquatic vegetation and products can estimated from sample surveys and monitoring of beneficiaries. Other benefits such as recreational value, flood control value, water quality improvement, pasture value, biodiversity, water table impacts, have real and very significant economic value but are much more challenging to estimate. Failure to include the economic value of all wetland outputs has clearly biased development efforts in Bangladesh towards conversion of wetlands to agricultural use to neglect of wetland areas.
The study findings show an annual economic output value estimated for Hail Haor is USD 8 Million. The net present value of this benefit stream over 15 years USD 83 million. Table.. present the net annual value of nine selected Hail Haor wetland economic outputs. Value is present in both absolute terms and for the per hectare of the Hail haor Maximum area (12, 300 Ha).
Table 2 Annual values of estimated Hail Haor economic outputs.
Hail Haor Returns Total Returns (USD) Current Returns (USD/Ha) Percent
Commercial
Fisheries 987232 80 12
Subsistence Fisheries 1467562 119 18.4%
Non fish products2211518 180 27.7%
Recreation 123257 10 1.5%
Flood Control 411284 33 5.2%
Tea estate vegetation use 33627 3 0.4%
Project/Biodiversity Funds 765800 62 9.6%
Transportation
153655
13
1.9%
Pasture value
706892
58
8.9%
Boro rice value
1120307
91
14.0%
Water quality
Note Done
Note Done
Aquifer charge
Note Done
Note Done
Existence value
Note Done
Note Done
Total USD
7,981,133
469
100
Commercial fishing represents 12.4 % of total value and subsistence fishing accounts for 18.4% of the annual Haor value. Significantly the annual value of non-fish aquatic products including aquatic grass, plants for human composition, snails, mussels and other products is 28% of the total value. This is the largest single economic output. The importance of dry season pastureland is also very significant at 9% of total value. The share of value for recreation and flood control are 2% and 55 respectively. It should also be noted that the current value of bore rice produced within the haor wetland area is included 14%. The foreign project investment attributed to biodiversity preservation is 9.6%.
The estimated annual value for the wetland economic outputs are very conservative. They are conservative because important economic outputs such as water quality important and aquifer change were not included but represent economic outputs. It should also be noted that the Hail Haor has already been substantially degraded from over use, loss of water body connections, water diversion, pollution, conservation to boro rice and sedimentation form mismanagement of the surrounding watershed. This means that the value of wetland economic outputs would be much grater for a healthy ecosystem managed sustainable.
Pollution Abetment Initiative
Industrial pollution largely from textile dying remains the major wetland resource management issue in the Turag-Bongshi site. Activities jointly supported by MACAH and DFID and the EU have continued to promoted cleaner technologies and best practice among selected industries, including proper design and operation of Effluent Treatment Plants, and more efficient dyeing techniques. During the year key changes and progress have been made in promoting the findings of the previous years through a series of booklets and workshops with industrialist organized with associations, and elected networks. Fish kills in fish sanctuaries during the dry season highlighted the continued urgency of the problem, which is believed to partly arise from downstream factories outside the immediate project area discharging into the Turag River which has a tidal backflow in the dry season. An inventory if industries reveals 273 units in that area (MACH-II Annual Report November 2004 – October 2005). To document the problem and give the affected communities evidence in support of their campaign against set up. Given the low uptake of cleaner technologies so far by the industry, another new focus has been on raising understanding of the issue among international buyers so that they adopt codes of conduct and form a pressure for compliance with existing water quality and effluent regulations.
Communication programmes
Communication and awareness activities take in two forms activities to support the project activities within its three working areas, and activities to promote wider uptake and influence policy makers.
Two issues of MACH newsletter were published highlighting the major ongoing project activities. Through this newsletter MACH is disseminating updated information about wetland resources and improved management activities in the project sites, and is also encouraging stakeholders to write and express their feeling / concerns about MACH initiatives and local wetland resources. A Flip Chart was developed with 14 drawings on wetland management issues for use by MACH field workers during courtyard discussion sessions. Courtyard meeting with over 8,000 local resources users were held to discuss wetland issues. International Wetland, Environment and Earth days were targeted with a wide range of programmes in the three sites with events that attracted over 6,000 participants. However, the major site based activity in the reporting period has been live drama shows, which an earlier assessment found to be one of the most effective communication methods for local target groups. Ninety-six villages dramas were attended by over 70, 000 people at the MACH sites. Activities during the reporting period that targeted national stakeholders and policy makers have included: participation in DOF Inland Capture Fisheries Strategies workshop and retreat.
Case Study on Community Based Haor and Floodplain Resource Management Component of SEMP Programme
Community Based Haor and Floodplain Resource Management (CNHFRM) components of the Sustainable Environment Management Programme (SEMP) has been jointly implemented by IUCN Bangladesh country Office, Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS), Centre for Natural Resource Studies (CNRS) and Nature Conservation Management (NACOM) from October 1998 to December 2005.
The activities of the project varied from area to area considering the environmental issues, livelihood patterns, conservation opportunities and management options are different at different sites. These projects were participatory in all steps including resource inventory, problem identification, solution, prioritisation, planning needed interventions, and implementation. These projects, however, only offered the opportunities to pilot a range of interventions deemed appropriate for improving the existing conditions prevailing in some selected haors and floodplains. Major interventions included baseline data establishment, community organization, enhancing livelihood options, financial incentives, awareness raising, demonstration, alternative energy options, plantations, wetland restoration, and biodiversity conservation.
[1] The RAMSER Convention has defined wetlands as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six meters”. Thus the term wetlands groups together a wide range of inland, coastal and marine habitats which share a number of common features (Dugan 1990; cited in Aninun Nishat, 1993)
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